Unit 2: Cognition Flashcards
bottom-up processing
information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
gestalt psychology
an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
closure
mentally filling in gaps to create a complete, whole object
figure-ground
the organization of the visual-field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)
proximity
mentally groups things that are close together into one set
similarity
mentally grouping objects based on how alike they are to each other
attention
a state in which cognitive resources are focused on certain aspects of the environment rather than on others and the central nervous system is in a state of readiness to respond to stimuli
selective attention
focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
cocktail party effect
the brain’s ability to attend to only one voice within a sea of many as you chat with a party guest
inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness
binocular depth cues
a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object
convergence
a cue to nearby object’s distance, enabled by the brain combing retinal images
monocular depth cue
a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone
relative clarity
because more light passes through objects that are farther away, we perceive these objects as hazy, blurry, or unclear. Nearby objects, by contrast, appear sharp and clear.
relative size
if we assume two objects are similar in size, most people perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away
texture gradient
moving towards or away from an object changes our perception of its smoothness or texture. When a wall is viewed from a distance, we will perceive it as smooth. Viewing the same wall up close will reveal greater texture and detail.
linear perspective
parallel lines appear to meet in the distance. The sharper the angle of convergence, the greater the perceived distance is
interposition
if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer
apparent movement
an illusion of motion or change in size of a visual stimulus
prototypes
a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a crow)
assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
accommodation
adapting our current schemas (understanding) to incorporate new information
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. This contrasts with the usually speedier - but also more error-prone - use of heuristics
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy - a mental shortcut - that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm
representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
availability heuristic
judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way; often a way that has been successful in the past
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing ones perceptions, memory, or response
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
Gambler’s fallacy
when people observe random events happening repeatedly (such as flipping a coin and having it land on heads 8 times in a row), they may unconsciously use the representative heuristic when judging the likelihood of future events (assuming the coin will surely land on tails next time)
sunk-cost fallacy
our tendency to stick to our original ideas and plans because we’ve invested our time, even when switching to a new approach could save us time
executive functions
cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan and implement goal-directed behavior
creativity
the ability to produce new and valuable ideas
divergent thinking
expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions
convergent thinking
narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
functional fixedness
occurs when our prior experiences inhibit our ability to find creative solutions
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
explicit memory
retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare”
episodic memory
explicit memory of personal experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems
semantic memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems
implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
procedural memory
automatic skills (how to ride a bike) and classically conditioned associations among stimuli (if you are attacked by a dog when you’re young, you might become tense when a dog approaches you years later)