Unit 2: Cognition Flashcards
1
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bottom-up processing
A
information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
2
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top-down processing
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information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
3
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schema
A
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
4
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perceptual set
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a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
5
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gestalt psychology
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an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
6
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closure
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mentally filling in gaps to create a complete, whole object
7
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figure-ground
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the organization of the visual-field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)
8
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proximity
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mentally groups things that are close together into one set
9
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similarity
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mentally grouping objects based on how alike they are to each other
10
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attention
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a state in which cognitive resources are focused on certain aspects of the environment rather than on others and the central nervous system is in a state of readiness to respond to stimuli
11
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selective attention
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focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
12
Q
cocktail party effect
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the brain’s ability to attend to only one voice within a sea of many as you chat with a party guest
13
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inattentional blindness
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failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
14
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change blindness
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failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness
15
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binocular depth cues
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a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes
16
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retinal disparity
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a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object
17
Q
convergence
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a cue to nearby object’s distance, enabled by the brain combing retinal images
18
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monocular depth cue
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a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone
19
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relative clarity
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because more light passes through objects that are farther away, we perceive these objects as hazy, blurry, or unclear. Nearby objects, by contrast, appear sharp and clear.
20
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relative size
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if we assume two objects are similar in size, most people perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away
21
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texture gradient
A
moving towards or away from an object changes our perception of its smoothness or texture. When a wall is viewed from a distance, we will perceive it as smooth. Viewing the same wall up close will reveal greater texture and detail.
22
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linear perspective
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parallel lines appear to meet in the distance. The sharper the angle of convergence, the greater the perceived distance is
23
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interposition
A
if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer
24
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apparent movement
A
an illusion of motion or change in size of a visual stimulus
25
prototypes
a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a crow)
26
assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
27
accommodation
adapting our current schemas (understanding) to incorporate new information
28
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. This contrasts with the usually speedier - but also more error-prone - use of heuristics
29
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy - a mental shortcut - that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm
30
representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
31
availability heuristic
judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
32
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way; often a way that has been successful in the past
33
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing ones perceptions, memory, or response
34
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
35
Gambler's fallacy
when people observe random events happening repeatedly (such as flipping a coin and having it land on heads 8 times in a row), they may unconsciously use the representative heuristic when judging the likelihood of future events (assuming the coin will surely land on tails next time)
36
sunk-cost fallacy
our tendency to stick to our original ideas and plans because we've invested our time, even when switching to a new approach could save us time
37
executive functions
cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan and implement goal-directed behavior
38
creativity
the ability to produce new and valuable ideas
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divergent thinking
expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions
40
convergent thinking
narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
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functional fixedness
occurs when our prior experiences inhibit our ability to find creative solutions
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storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
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retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
44
explicit memory
retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and "declare"
45
episodic memory
explicit memory of personal experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems
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semantic memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems
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implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
48
procedural memory
automatic skills (how to ride a bike) and classically conditioned associations among stimuli (if you are attacked by a dog when you're young, you might become tense when a dog approaches you years later)
49
prospective memory
remembering to do something in the future, such as taking one’s medicine later
50
long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a nerve cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory
51
primary memory system
memory that retains a few items for only several seconds, in contrast to secondary memory
52
working memoryt
a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both incoming sensory information and information retrieved from long-term memory
53
central executive
a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad
54
phonological loop
a memory component that briefly holds auditory information
55
visuospatial sketchpad
a memory component that briefly holds information about object's appearance and location in space
56
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
57
multi-store model
any theory hypothesizing that information can move through and be retained in any of several memory storage systems, usually of a short-term and a long-term variety
58
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
59
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photograph or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few seconds in length
60
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 to 4 seconds
61
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings
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effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
63
encoding
the process of getting information into the memory system -- for example, by extracting meaning
64
shallow encoding
cognitive processing of a stimulus that focuses on its superficial, perceptual characteristics rather than its meaning. It is considered that processing at this shallow level produces weaker, shorter-lasting memories than deep processing
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deep processing
cognitive processing of a stimulus that focuses on its meaningful properties rather than its perceptual characteristics. It is considered that processing at this semantic level, which usually involves a degree of elaboration, produces stronger, longer-lasting memories than shallow processing.
66
mnemonic devices
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
67
method of loci
a mnemonic technique in which the items to be remembered are converted into mental images and associated with specific positions or locations. For instance, to remember a shopping list, each product could be imagined at a different location along a familiar street
68
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
69
hierarchies
a few broad categories divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts
70
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
71
memory consolidation
the neurobiological processes by which a permanent memory is formed following a learning experience
72
massed practice
cramming; can produce speedy short-term learning and an inflated feeling of confidence
73
distributed practice
a learning procedure in which practice periods for a particular task are separated by lengthy rest periods or lengthy periods of practicing different activities or studying other material, rather than occurring close together in time
74
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially (a recency effect) and the first items in a list after a delay (a primacy effect)
75
primacy effect
our tendency to remember the first items in a list after a delay (when our attention is elsewhere)
76
recency effect
our tendency to recall best the last items in a list quickly and well, perhaps because they are still in working memory
77
short-term memory
briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten
78
maintenance rehearsal
repeating items over and over to maintain them in short-term memory, as in repeating a telephone number until it has been dialed
79
elaborative rehearsal
an encoding strategy to facilitate the formation of memory by linking new information to what one already knows. For instance, when trying to remember that someone is named George, one might think of five other things one knows about people named George
80
memory retention
persistence of learned behavior or experience during a period when it is not being performed or practiced, as indicated by the ability to recall, recognize, reproduce, or relearn it.
81
autobiographical memory
a person’s memory for episodes or experiences that occurred in their own life
82
retrograde amnesia
an inability to remember information from one's past
83
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
84
Alzheimer's disease
a progressive neurodegenerative disease caused by plaque accumulation and neuron death. Begins as difficulty remembering new information, progressing to an inability to do everyday tasks. Complex speech becomes simple sentences, family members and close friends become strangers, the brain's memory centers wither away
85
infantile amnesia
the commonly experienced inability to recall events from early childhood
86
recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
87
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, like on a multiple-choice test
88
retrieval cues
a prompt or stimulus used to guide memory recall
89
context-dependent memory
a familiar context or setting can help retrieve or activate new memories
90
mood-congruent memory
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
91
state-dependent memory
what we learn in one state may be more easily recalled again when we are in that state. For instance, adults who hide money when drunk may forget the location until drunk again
92
testing effect
the finding that taking a test on previously studied material leads to better retention than does restudying that material for an equivalent amount of time
93
metacognition
cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes
94
forgetting curve
a graphic depiction of the amount of forgetting over time after learning has taken place
95
encoding failure
we cannot remember what we have not encoded; much of what we sense we will never notice
96
proactive interference
the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information
97
retroactive interference
the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information
98
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
the experience of attempting to retrieve from memory a specific name or word but not being able to do so. Usually, the name or word is eventually retrieved, but while on the TOT, it seems to hover tantalizingly on the rim of consciousness
99
repression (psychodynamic)
the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
100
misinformation effect
occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information
101
source amnesia
faulty memory for how, when, and where information was learned or imagined (as when misattributing information to the wrong source). Source amnesia, along with misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories
102
constructive memory
remembering conceived as involving the use of general knowledge stored in one’s memory to construct a more complete and detailed account of an event or experience by changing or filling in various features of the memory
103
imagination inflation
the increased likelihood that a person will judge an event as having actually occurred (e.g., during childhood) when they imagine the event before making such a judgment
104
intelligence
the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
105
general intelligence (g)
according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
106
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus IQ = ma/ca x 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100
107
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age. Thus, a child who does as well as an average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8.
108
chronological age
the amount of time elapsed since an individual’s birth, typically expressed in terms of months and years
109
standardization
defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group
110
validity
the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what is it supposed to
111
construct validity
how much a test measures a concept or trait
112
predictive validity
the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and criterion behavior
113
reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting
114
stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
115
stereotype lift
the confidence that your group or "type" does well on a task, being exposed to situations that create stereotype threat in outgroup members may actually improve task performance
116
Flynn effect
the gradual cross-cultural rise in raw scores obtained on measures of general intelligence. These increases have been roughly 9 points per generation
117
achievement test
a test designed to measure what a person has learned
118
aptitude test
a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn
119
fixed mindset
the view that intelligence, abilities, and talents are unchangeable, even with effort
120
growth mindset
a focus on learning and growing rather than viewing abilities as fixed
