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AP Psychology > Unit 0: Scientific Practices > Flashcards

Unit 0: Scientific Practices Flashcards

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1
Q

cultural norms

A

a society’s understood rules for behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior in individual and social situations.

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2
Q

confirmation bias

A

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

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3
Q

hindsight bias

A

a tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (also known as “I knew it all along” syndrome)

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4
Q

overconfidence

A

a tendency to be more confident than correct – to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

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5
Q

independent variable

A

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

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6
Q

confounding variable

A

in an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results

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7
Q

dependent variable

A

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

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8
Q

random assignment

A

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

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9
Q

case study

A

a non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in-depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

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10
Q

correlation

A

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well each factor predicts the other

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11
Q

positive correlation

A

a relationship between two variables in which both rise and fall together. For example, one would expect to find a positive correlation between study hours and test performance

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12
Q

negative correlation

A

a relationship between two variables in which the value of one variable increases as the value of the other decreases. For example, in a study about babies crying and being held, the discovery that those who are held more tend to cry less is a negative correlation

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13
Q

meta-analysis

A

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

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14
Q

naturalistic observation

A

a non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

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15
Q

hypothesis

A

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

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16
Q

falsifiable

A

the possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment

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17
Q

operational definition

A

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures

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18
Q

replication

A

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced

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19
Q

central tendency

A

the middle or center point of a set of scores. The central tendency of a sample data set, for instance, may be estimated by a number of different statistics (mean, median, mode)

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20
Q

variation

A

the degree of variance or dispersion of values that is obtained for a specific variable

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21
Q

percentile rank

A

the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score

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22
Q

mean

A

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

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23
Q

median

A

the middle score of a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

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24
Q

mode

A

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

25
Q

range

A

the differences between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

26
Q

normal curve

A

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes

27
Q

bimodal distribution

A

a set of scores with two peaks or modes around which values tend to cluster, such that the frequencies at first increase and then decrease around each peak. For example, when graphing the heights of a sample of adolescents, one would obtain a bimodal distribution if most people were either 5’7” or 5’9” tall

28
Q

standard deviation

A

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

29
Q

regression toward the mean

A

a tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) towards the average

30
Q

sample

A

a subset of a population of interest that is selected for study with the aim of making inferences to the population. It is important to ensure that a sample is representative of the larger population

31
Q

population

A

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn (except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population)

32
Q

representative sample

A

the selection of study units (e.g., participants, homes, schools) from a larger group (population) in an unbiased way, such that the sample obtained accurately reflects the total population

33
Q

random sampling

A

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal choice of inclusion

34
Q

convenience sampling

A

any process for selecting a sample of individuals or cases that is neither random nor systematic but rather is governed by chance or ready availability. Interviewing the first 50 people to exit a store is an example of convenience sampling.

35
Q

generalization

A

the process of deriving a concept, judgment, principle, or theory from a limited number of specific cases and applying it more widely, often to an entire class of objects, events, or people

36
Q

experimental group

A

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

37
Q

control group

A

in an experiment, the group NOT exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of a treatment

38
Q

placebo

A

a pharmacologically inert substance, such as a sugar pill, that is often administered as a control in testing new drugs.

39
Q

placebo effect

A

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

40
Q

single-blind study

A

an experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant (blind) about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo

41
Q

double-blind study

A

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

42
Q

experimenter bias

A

bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs

43
Q

social desirability bias

A

bias from people’s responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes

44
Q

qualitative research/measures

A

a research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers

45
Q

structured interview

A

an interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scales

46
Q

quantitative research/measures

A

a research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data

47
Q

Likert scales

A

a type of direct attitude measure that consists of statements reflecting strong positive or negative evaluations of an object. Five-point scales are common and a neutral middle point may or may not be included

48
Q

peer review

A

scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy

49
Q

scatterplot

A

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the value of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation

50
Q

correlation coefficient

A

a statistical index of the relationship between two things

51
Q

effect size

A

the strength of the relationship between two variables. The larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by another

52
Q

statistical significance

A

a statistical statement of how likely it is that a result occurred by chance, assuming there is not difference between the populations being studied

53
Q

directionality problem

A

in correlational research, the situation in which it is known that two variables are related although it is not known which is the cause and which is the effect.

54
Q

third variable problem

A

the fact that an observed correlation between two variables may be due to the common correlation between each of the variables and a third variable rather than any underlying relationship (in a causal sense) of the two variables with each other. In other words, when two variables, a and b, are found to be positively or negatively correlated, it does not necessarily mean that one causes the other: It may be that changes in an unmeasured or unintended third variable, c, are causing a random and coincidental relationship between the two variables by independently changing a and b.

55
Q

informed consent

A

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

56
Q

informed assent

A

informed consent in the case of minors

57
Q

confidentiality

A

a principle of professional ethics requiring providers of mental health care or medical care to limit the disclosure of a patient’s identity, their condition or treatment, and any data entrusted to professionals during assessment, diagnosis, and treatment

58
Q

deception

A

any distortion of or withholding of fact with the purpose of misleading others. For example, a researcher who has not disclosed the true purpose of an experiment to a participant has engaged in deception.

59
Q

debriefing

A

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

AP Psychology (4 decks)

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