unit 2 - active learning Flashcards
how do heredity (nature) and the environment (nurture) interact?
while our behaviors are meant to increase our abilities to survive/reproduce (Origin of Species), our environments also have a role in shaping us. thus, it is both nature AND nurture.
*see: reciprocal determinism & epigenetics
briefly describe the process of reciprocal determinism.
this theory emphasizes the role of nurture/environment;
environment affects the person –> person reacts –> influences the environment; hence the person and the environment determine one another.
many of our behaviors are polygenic, so our disorders also have genetic bases and triggers…what is this called?
diathesis
proponents of the nature argument would cite what?
maturationism –> children tend to follow the same pattern; sit –> crawl –> walk THEN the environment modifies their behavior
why can people that have brain lesions or their corpus callosum cut still function normally?
neuroplasticity; the regenerative abilities of the brain to change its wiring/pathways in response to trauma or new experiences.
*we are most plastic within the first two weeks of life
how does the endocrine system relate to psychology?
glandular hormones talk to other glands/body parts and result in complex cellular and therefore behavioral changes. but the endocrine system is not a self-contained system, relying heavily on all body systems to function, coordinate, and sustain itself.
what are some major glands? what are they responsible for? *PAPPOTT
P - Pituitary --> regulates all other glands A - Adrenal --> crises/stress P - Pineal --> melatonin/sleep P - Pancreas --> blood sugar/energy O - Ovaries --> estrogen/progesterone T - Testes --> testosterone
what structural characteristics allow for the endocrine and nervous systems to work in harmony?
neurotransmitters have receptors which hormones fit into
glands have neuronal receptor sites to get activated
what are some major hormones, what do they communicate? MEGA LOTC
M - Melatonin –> sleep
E - Estrogen –> reproduction/sex drive
G - Ghrelin –> hunger
A - Adrenaline –> fight/flight
L - Leptin –> fullness cues
O - Oxytocin –> bonding
T - Testosterone –> arousal/competition
C - Cortisol –> stress hormone
what is the central nervous system comprised of? what are its parts responsible for?
the brain & spinal cord. the brain organizes movement, thought emotions, behaviors while the spinal cord transmits messages throughout the body.
what is the peripheral nervous system comprised of? what are its parts responsible for?
the PNS is a bundle of nerves outside the CNS that transmits signals from the brain to the body. Its somatic nervous system has sensory neurons that send afferent signals to the brain and (the brain commands) motor neurons with efferent signals.
beneath the pns is the somatic and autonomic systems. what is the latter comprised of, and what is it responsible for?
the ans regulates unconscious actions; bpm, bp, glands, etc, but has a sympathetic system for ACTION and a parasympathetic system for CALMING to homeostatic conditions.
what are the two building blocks of the nervous system?
neurons and glial cells; glial cells provide the support, nutrients, and insulation and neurons do the work of transmitting but glial cells dominate neurons from a 50:1 ratio.
what are the three types of neurons?
- sensory (afferent, approaching) neurons that receive info and send it to the brain
- motor (efferent, exiting) neurons that send info from the brain to effectors
- interneurons (neither) that relay signals between sensory and motor neurons
briefly describe the neural impulse
at resting potential, there are more K+/Na++ on the outside of the axon, then as the ions seem into the voltage-gated channels, the positive sweep occurs down the axon, also known as firing. this process is all-or-nothing, a threshold that MUST be reached to fire. excess neurotransmitters are recollected into sending neurons or degraded by enzymes.
what language do neurons speak through? what are some common ones and what do they do? ADSEENGG
neurotransmitters provide the initiation necessary for action potentials.
A - acetylcholine enables muscle action/learning and its deterioration leads to alzheimer’s
D - dopamine influences movement/learning/attention/emotion and its oversupply leads to schizophrenia while undersupply leads to tremors seen in parkinson’s
S - serotonin affects hunger/mood/arousal/sleep and its undersupply leads to depression
E - endorphins are linked to pain control/pleasure and is associated with OCD
E - epinephrine is associated with energy/high-stress emotions
N - norepinephrine is associated with alertness, fight/flight
G - glutamate is an excitatory molecule for memory/oversupply causes migraines/seizures
G - GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter, undersupply causes seizures, tremors, insomnia
what are the different ways a drug interferes with neurons?
agonists; mimicking a neurotransmitter, producing an enhanced effect of its counterpart (L-Dopa; dopamine, opiates; endorphins)
antagonist; blocks a transmitter, producing an inhibitory effect (Botox; acetylcholine, alcohol; glutamate)
reuptake inhibitors; preventing reabsorption and causing positive feedback (SSRI; serotonin)
what are the major structures and functions of the hindbrain?
hindbrain = most primitive/essential
- medulla > extension of brain stem; bp, breathing, reflex
- pons > sleep, consciousness
- cerebellum > ‘little brain’ balance, coordination, mems
- reticular formation > arousal, consciousness
what are the major structures and functions of the midbrain?
midbrain = limbic system/emotional
- thalamus > sensory/motor relay, routes sigs to cerebrum
- hypothalamus > homeostatic bal of temp, hunger, thirst
- amygdala > fear/aggression reactions
- hippocampus > memory, learning, emotional regulation
what are the major structures and functions of the forebrain?
forebrain = higher-order thinking
-lobes > frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital
frontal > prefrontal in judgement, foresight, voluntary movement. brocas area in speech formation. motor cortex in movement.
temporal > auditory (wernicke) comprehension, association areas.
parietal > somatosensory cortex in filtering bodily sensations, association areas
occipital > visual cortex, association areas
how did we originally learn about the brain?
with the help of case studies, scenarios where normally unethical conditions arise, where we could see how damage in certain areas led to certain behavioral changes to make generalizations about what each part of the brain was responsible for.
what are some famous case studies?
Henry Molaison > had his hippocampus removed for seizures but only had short-term memories, they couldn’t get turned into long-term memories.
Louis Victor Leborgne > only used the word “Tan” because his right side impaired; Dr. Broca’s research led us to the area responsible for speech production and word selection
Phineas Gage > giant rod through his eye, damage to prefrontal cortex, judgement, emotion, and planning impaired.
what does the corpus callosum do?
this bundle of nerves that connects the hemispheres of the brain and can get severed for people experiencing seizures.
how valid is hemisphere specialization?
it’s valid to an extent because the left side is associated with logic, recall and the right side is associated with more artistic expressions BUT both are responsible for each thing. in addition, our brains are cross-wired, which manifests into flipped functions.
what are the different tools for neuroimaging?
EEG –> electrodes into head, resulting in waves.
PET –> glucose radioactive tracer
MRI –> shaking the brain’s atoms, light resulting produces the image
fMRI –> shows inner brain activity, similar to PET
how do drugs affect the brain (not neurons)
depressants > reduce neural activity, slowing & DEPRESSING functions
opioids > are also depressing; opioids antagonize endorphins
stimulants > excitatory, cocaine, caffeine, nicotine
hallucinogens > distort perceptions, LSD, THC
what happens when we sleep?
we sleep in cycles: NREM1 –> NREM2 –> NREM3 –> REM
NREM1 > light alpha waves > NREM2 is transitory with theta waves –> NREM3 is deep sleep with delta waves –> REM is beta waves and VERY active with paralysis, dreams, nightmares, memory consolidation occurring then.
we spend a 1/3 of our lives sleeping, why?
Restoration Theory > sleep repairs/restores/grows our bodies
Adaptive Theory > sleep protects us, pineal/pons triggered by dark and we are active/inactive when predators are
Cognitive Info Processing Theories > sleep restores/rebuilds/consolidates our memories.
Interpretation > dreams are what we are REALLY thinking in our daily lives; manifest memory is what we dream, latent memory is what they symbolize
Bioinfo theories > Dreams provide a way to sort daily events
Activation - Synthesis Model > REM preserves and develops neural connections
What are some common sleep disorders?
Insomnia > inability to sleep or stay asleep. caused by predisposition or stress, diet, irregular patterns, treated with meds or remedying routine
Sleep Apnea > not breathing while sleep causing people to wake up but not realize they wake up, causing exhaustion. caused by obstruction, CNS, or both. solved by CPAP or losing weight
Narcolepsy > sleep seizures, falling asleep randomly. anti-seizure meds.
