Unit 2 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the most important factor that holds a gene pool of a species together and prevents speciation?
A
Gene flow
2
Q
Which term is used to describe populations that live close enough to interbreed
A
Sympatry
3
Q
What prevents speciation from occurring in sympatric populations
A
Gene flow
4
Q
List 4 species concepts
A
- Morphological (MSC)
- Biological (BSC)
- Ecological (ESC)
- Phylogenetic (PSC)
5
Q
A species concept that is based on some physical distinction. It is the oldest and most frequently used approach.
A
Morphological Species Concept
6
Q
A species concept that emphasizes genetic compatibility and ability to interbreed with other members of its own “kind”.
A
Biological Species Concept
7
Q
A species concept that considers the sum total of all the interactions of a species with both the living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) environment (niche).
A
Ecological Species Concept
8
Q
A species concept that emphasizes ancestor-descendent relationships and the continuity of a lineage.
A
Phylogenetic Species Concept
9
Q
Isolating mechanisms prevent what?
A
Gene flow
10
Q
When does mechanical isolation occur?
A
- Pre-zygotic
- Pre-mating
11
Q
When does behavioral isolation occur?
A
- Pre-zygotic
- Pre- mating
12
Q
When does temporal isolation occur?
A
- Pre-zygotic
- Pre-mating
13
Q
When does ecological isolation occur?
A
- Pre-zygotic
- Pre-mating
14
Q
When does gametic isolation occur?
A
- Pre-zygotic
- Post-mating
15
Q
When does isolating mechanism of hybrid inviability occur?
A
- Post-zygomatic
- Post-mating
16
Q
When does the isolating mechanism of hybrid infertility occur?
A
- Post-zygotic
- Post-mating
17
Q
When does the isolating mechanism of hybrid “breakdown” occur?
A
- Post-zygotic 2. Post-mating
18
Q
Studies the changes in chromosome structure and behavior
A
Cytogenetics
19
Q
_________ Refers to the number of complete sets of genes
A
-ploidy
20
Q
When genes are “rotated” on a chromosome the mutation is called ____________
A
Inversion
21
Q
When the gene is copied and is located in two places on a chromosome the mutation is called __________
A
Duplication
22
Q
When a section of the chromosome has been removed and relocated to a different position along the chromosome the mutation is called _____________
A
Translocation
23
Q
When a section of a chromosome is missing the mutation is called ___________
A
Deletion
24
Q
When a segment has been added to a chromosome the mutation is called ____________
A
Insertion
25
Fine scale mutations include...
1. Nucleotide substitutions 2. Insertion/deletion (Indels)
26
Large scale mutations include...
1. Inversion 2. Duplication 3. Translocation 4. Deletion 5. Insertion
27
When a new species is created because of spatial/geographic separation it is called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Allopatric speciation
28
When a new species develops because of the species are genetically separate it is called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Sympatic speciation
29
The modern basis for classifying organisms is degree of evolutionary relatedness / relationships
Phylogenetic Systematics
| (Cladistics)
30
Man who introduced The principles of geology (uniformitarianism) (1797-1875)
Charles Lyell
31
Developed the cladistic method, also known as phylogenetic systematics
Willi Hennig
32
Any describable feature or attribute of an organism
Taxonamic Character
33
A particular form or expression, one among several, for a given character. (needs to be at least two)
Character State
34
What are two Character types
1. Qualitative
2. Quantitative
35
States or catagories are created through the use of mutually exclusive, discriptive words or less often phrases
Qualitative
36
States are defined through measurements; a numericle value
Quantitative
37
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is a quantitative state where the measure for each state can take on only certain values, such as whole numbers.
Discontinuous
38
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is a quantitative state where the measure for a state can, in theory, take on any (decimal/fractional) value.
Continuous
39
Transformation series between ancestral and derived species can be listed in what three ways
1. Unordered Character State
2. Ordered Character State
3. Polarized character State
40
When the character states between species are the same even though they have different numbers they are considered \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Transformational Homologs
41
When there is an equivalence even though numbers dont match it is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Taxic Homologs
42
A species that is ancestral is known as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Plesiomorphic
43
A species that is derived is known as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Apomorphic
44
A "summary" data table containing all of the character and character-state information with the former listed along the top and taxa (often but not always species) listed along the (left) side.
Character by Taxon Data Matrix
45
In a Character by Taxon Data Matrix the ancestral state is always represented by a \_\_\_\_\_\_
Zero (0)
46
A computer program is used to compare DNA; This shows similarities and differneces between different species DNA
Sequence Alignment
47
When one letter in a DNA sequence is changed it is called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Nucleotide Substitution
48
When one nucleotide in a strand of DNA is changed and it changes from a purine to a purine or pyrimidine to a pyrimidine.
Transition
49
When one nucleotide in a strand of DNA is changed and it changes from a purine to a pyrimidine or vica versa.
Transversion
50
1. The loss or gain of nucleotides
2. When it is unknown whether there was a loss or gain it is called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
1. Deletion/Insertion
2. Indel
51
The non coding part of a gene
Intron
52
the coding part of a gene
Exon
53
Characters in which the derived state is found in only one taxon; used for defining or diagnosing taxon but not used to construct relationships
Autapomorphic
54
Characters in which there are more than two states
Miltistate Characters
55
Characters in which there are only two states
Binary Characters
56
Taxa, usually species, that a researcher studies. The whole point of a cladistic analysis is to determine the relationship among members
Ingroup Taxa
57
Taxa used to polarize character states with end result being the root of the tree. (0 Character state)
Outgroup Taxa
58
Diagram that is used to show a nesting of groups
Venn Diagram
59
An unresolved tree or bush
Polytomy
60
Describe a node and internode in a cladogram
* Node - represents a speciation event
* Internode - area between nodes where changes are labeled for the speciation event
61
A group of organisms that includes a common ancestor and all of its descendents
Monophyletic
62
A branching diagram that (graphically) illustrates the evolutionary relationships of a set of taxa. It shows recency of common ancestry.
Cladogram
63
A group of organisms that includes some of the descendants of a common ancestor but not all of them
Paraphyletic
64
A group of organisms that include representatives drawn from two or more different lineages. groups are typically created when analogous structures, resulting from convergent evolution, are misinterpreted as true homologies.
Polyphyletic
65
Derived from a 17th-century philosopher named William of Ockham and has come to be known as "Ockham’s Razor." What it says is that when we are **_faced with "competing" explanations for observable phenomena we select the one that makes or requires the fewest assumptions_** - we prefer the simplest, most succinct or direct scenario because that is the one that has the greatest probability of being correct.
Parsimony
66
A character shared by a set of species but not present in their common ancestor
Homoplasy
67
Counting and recording the movement of chromosomes in cell division is known as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Cytogenetics
68
When species breed during different times of the day or even different seasons or years. Interbreeding is unlikely even when found in the same geographic area
Temporal Isolation
69
Courtship rituals that attract mates can make an effective barrier that prevents mating is one example of...
Behavioral Isolation
70
A condition where the organism has more than two complete sets of chromosomes occurs frequently in plants, has led to new species that are adaptively superior to the original
Polyploidy
71
Occurs when an individual has more than two sets of chromosomes from a single species
Autopolyploidy
72
Occurs when two different species interbreed and produce a hybrid that is often sterile
Allopolyploidy
73
Process recombines alleles to produce genetic variation in the gametes/spores
Crossing over
74
When genetic isolating mechanisms are incomplete genes/alleles of one species may make their way, through hybridization, into another species.
Introgression
75
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is maintained when the following occurs:
- no natural selection
- no genetic drift
- no emigration
- no immigration
- no mutation
- random mating
- large population size
76
The study of the spatial distributions of organisms and the factors that determine where organisms are found
Biogeography
77
What are the factors that determine where species are found
1. Locations of Ecoregions (Latitude)
2. Mobility of Species
3. Land masses where species can be found
78
List some natural barriers that reproductively isolate species
- mountain ranges
- ice sheets/glaciers
- rivers
- oceans
- deserts
79
List some man made barriers that reproductively isolate species
- roads/highways
- railroads
- fencing
- right-of-ways
- irrigation canals
- agriculture
- urban development
80
Describe an edge effect
Edge effect refer to the changes in population or community structures that occur at the boundary of two habitats. Areas with small habitats exhibit especially pronounced edge effects that may extend throughout the range. As the edge effects increase, the boundary habitat allows for greater biodiversity.
81
The study of the fossilization process
ie: How do fossils form? How are they preserved in the geologic record?
Taphonomy
82
Any evidence of past life
Fossil
83
the entire organism or some component of it represents the fossil;
some examples include leaves, stems, bones, or scales
direct fossil
84
the organism itself is absent but there is some indication that it was present in the environment;
examples include tracks, bite marks, and dung (coprolites)
indirect fossil
85
Fossil that needs a microscope to be seen
Micro fossil
86
Fossil that can be see with the naked eye
Macro fossil
87
Fossilization that occurs when a specimen is compressed or flattened by the weight of sediments and water. As part of this process the internal tissues of the organism weaken and collapse and any gases or water (and any soluble compounds it contains) are lost from the tissue. What remains are the (essentially two-dimensional) “coaly” organic remnants of the tissue.
Compaction/Impression
88
What mode of preservation is seen here
Compaction/Impression
89
What mode of preservation is seen here
Compaction/Impression
90
Fossilization that occurs when water containing dissolved carbonates, silicates and iron compounds seep into and permeate tissues. These compounds later form precipitates that, in time, become rock. This rock constitues a matrix that “fills-in” the spaces and thus supports the tissue.
Permineralization/Petrifaction
91
What mode of preservation is seen here
Permineralization/Petrifaction
92
What mode of preservation is seen here
Permineralization/Petrifaction
93
What mode of preservation is seen here
Permineralization/Petrifaction
94
What mode of preservation is seen here
Permineralization/Petrifaction
95
What mode of preservation is seen here
Casts/Molds
96
Fossilization that occurs when extremely fine, electrically charged particles of sediment (colloids) are drawn to the surface of a specimen by electrostatic attraction. These particles then tightly bond to the surface and eventually lithify (become rock) to form a mold. Typically, the internal matter of the specimen is entirely replaced. This process is also known as authigenic preservation.
Casts/Molds
97
What type of preservation is seen here
Casts/Molds
98
What type of preservation is seen here
Casts/Molds
99
Certain durable “hard” parts produced by some organisms, such as the calcium carbonate matrix created by coralline red and green algae, the shells and teeth of various marine/aquatic animals and the siliceous cell walls of diatoms, are preserved more or less unchanged.
Duripartic
100
What type of preservation is seen here
Duripartic
101
What type of preservation is seen here
Duripartic
102
What type of preservation is seen here
Duripartic
103
Fossilization that occurs when small organisms and portions of larger ones are caught in plant resins which then harden and undergo chemical changes to become a semiprecious stone.
Encasement
104
What mode of preservation is seen here
Encasement
105
Specimens found in protected environments characterized by high or low temperature and low humidity can be preserved in more or less unaltered form.
Dessication
106
What mode of preservation is seen here
Dessication
107
Specimens that are frozen can be preserved in more or less unaltered form since (bacterial/fungal) decay is inhibited.
Freezing
108
These types of direct microfossils generally preserve very well in the geologic record. This is because a component of the cell wall is resistant to decay.
Pollen/Spores
109
Cell wall component found in pollen/spores that is resistant to decay
sporopollenin
110
These types of direct microfossils generally preserve very well in the geologic record because of the shells, or tests, they produce. These animals are, in fact, small, unicellular protozoa.
Radiolaria/Foraminifera
111
the organism itself is absent but there is some indication that it was present in the environment; examples include footprints/tracks, teeth/bite marks, dung (coprolites), food caches (middens), dens and burrows.
Indirect/Trace
112
What is required for the formation of a fossil
* decay must be inhibited
* by low temperature, low humidity, low oxygen, or acid pH
* plant and animal parts must remain undisturbed
* a source of sediments must be available
113
What are some types of sediment/rock where fossils will form
* limestone
* dolomite
* shale
* siltstone
* sandstone
* diatomite
114
What type of sedimentary rock is pictured
Shales (Clays)
115
What type of sedimentary rock is pictured
Sandstone
116
What type of sedimentary rock is pictured
Siltstone
117
What type of sedimentary rock is pictured
Limestone
118
What type of sedimentary rock is pictured
Dolomite
119
What type of sedimentary rock is pictured
Diatomite
120
In the following cladogram, which node occurred earliest in time?
Node 1
121
In the cladogram which node represents the most recent common ancestor of terminal taxa B and C?
Node 2
122
Which node represents the most recent common ancestor of terminal taxa A and B?
Node 1
123
Which terminal taxon is B more closely related to, A or C?
How did you know?
B shares a more recent common ancestor with C (represented by node 2) than it does with A. (Their most recent common ancestor is represented by node 1.)
124
Of the cladograms shown below, which one shows a different evolutionary history from the others
Cladogram 3. In it, B and C are shown as sharing the most recent common ancestor, whereas in the others, C shares its most recent common ancestor with D.
125
Three taxonomic groups are circled on the cladogram below. Indicate what type of group they represent.
Group 1: Polyphyletic
Group 2: Monophyletic
Group 3: Paraphyletic
126
A simple cladogram of vertebrate relationships is shown. A circle has been drawn around all the parts of the cladogram that traditionally would be known as "fish."
What kind of group is "fish?"
Paraphyletic
127
Of what monophyletic group is "choanae" a synapomorphy?
Choanata
128
What synapomorphy is indicated for Tetrapoda?
Fingers and Toes
129
How many character state changes here?
| (How big is the tree?)
5
130
Shared derived character states
synapomorphies
131
When you add an outgroup to your cladogram you are doing what
rooting your tree
132
Begining with the most recent and going back list the Eras we are responsibile for knowing
* Cenozoic
* Mesozoic
* Palaeozoic
* Precambrian
133
List the periods that took place during the Palaeozoic Era
(Starting with the most recent)
* Permian
* Carboniferous
* Devonian
* Silurian
* Ordovician
* Cambrian
134
List the periods that took place during the Mesozoic Era
(Starting with the most recent)
* Cretaceous
* Jurassic
* Triassic
135
List the periods that took place during the Cenozoic Era
(Starting with the most recent)
* Quaternary
* Tertiary
136
How long ago was the extinction event that marked the end of the Precambrian Era and the beggining of the Palaeozoic Era
590 million years ago
137
How long ago was the extinction event that marked the end of the Palaeozoic Era and the beggining of the Mesozoic Era
250 million years ago
138
How long ago was the extinction event that marked the end of the Mesozoic Era and the beggining of the Cenozoic Era
65 million years ago
139
The extinction event that is happening now marks the end of what Era
Cenozoic Era
140
List some examples of Catastrophism
* Vulcanism
* Earthquakes
* Tsunamis
* Floods
* Climate Change (rapid)
* Extraterrestrial Impacts
141
List some examples of Uniformitarianism
* Sedimentation
* Erosion / Weathering
* Subsidence
* Uplift
142
Which survivorship type has a high death rate early in life
Type III
143
Which survivorship type has a low death rate early in life and a high death rate late in life
Type I
144
Which survivorship type has a steady death rate throughout thier life
Type II
145
Compare r-selection to k-selection
r-selection
* Characterized by unstable habitat
* smaller body sizes
* shorter lifespans
* early age of first reproduction
* number of reproductive episodes are once or few (semelparity)
* large clutch size
* little parental care
* mortality high initially
k-selection
* More stable habitats; fewer extremes that occur less often
* larger body sizes
* longer life span
* later age of first reproduction
* many reproductive episodes (iteroperity)
* much smaller clutch sizes
* condiderable parental care
* mortality low initially
146
What are the three characteristics of a population
1. possess a spatial boundary (range)
2. exhibit a distribution (biogeography)
3. possess a temporal boundary (a speciation event creates
a new lineage and an extinction event terminates it)
147
What kind of biogeographic distribution can species exhibit
* endemic species
* native species
* non-native (alien or introduced)
* circumpolar
* cosmopolitan
* disjunct
148
What biogeographical distribution describes species that can be found all over the world
Cosmopolitan
149
What biogeographical distribution describes species that can be found near the poles
Circumpolar
150
What biogeographical distribution describes species that can be found in a well established area where they have not been brought in
Native species
151
What biogeographical distribution describes species that can be found in only one spot in the world
Endemic
152
What biogeographical distribution describes a main population found in a specific area but also isolated populations found way of the main population
Disjunct
153
What biogeographical distribution describes a species that has been removed from their environment and introduced into a new environment; sometimes becoming an invasive species
Non-native species
154
Hybrids survive or reproduce better than members of either parent species; continued production of hybrid individuals
Stability
155
list the 3 types of dispersion patterns
1. Uniform - territoriality
2. Random - Solitary species/ environmental hetergeneity
3. Clumped - Sociality / environmental hetergeneity
156
Life history patterns consist of what 5 characteristics
1. life span
2. mating systems
3. growth rates
4. survivorship curves
5. fertility schedules
157
List and describe the 3 types of survivorship curves
* Type 1 - small clutch size with high survivability early on
* Type 2 - steady death rate throughout life span
* Type 3 - large clutch size where many die early in life
158
Fertility schedule is represented by what characteristics
* Age of first reproduction
* Clutch size
* Number of reproductive events
159
What are the three possible outcomes for hybrids over time
* Rienforcement
* Fusion
* Stability
160
Hybrids gradually cease to be formed due to strengthening of reproductive barriers
Reinforcement
161
Two species (hybrids) fuse due to a weakening of reproductive barriers
Fusion
162
New species change most as they branch from a parent species and then change little for the rest of their existance is...
Punctuated model
163
Species diverge from one another more slowly and steadily over time
Gradual model
164
Paleontologists Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould coined the term...
Punctuated equilibrium
165
The presence of an abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell
Aneuploidy
166
Process through which new species evolve from a single ancestral species while inhabiting the same geographic region.
Sympatric speciation
167
An estimate for the size of a population based on the numbers of females and males that successfully breed; generally smaller than the total population
Effective population size
168
The sum of a species use of the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) resources in its environment
Ecological Niche
169
A group of spatially speparated populations of one species that interacts through immigration and emigration
Metapopulation
170
What are the two tests that can be performed to see if two characters are truely homologous
1. Test of similarity
2. Character congruence
171
one type of allelle per characteristic; no variation in allelles
monomorphic
172
two allelles per characteristic
dimorphic
173
A single large population is subdivided or fragmented into two or more subpopulations
allopatric speciation
174
A small subset of the population leaves, or migrates thereby removing Their alleles from the “parent” population.
founder affect
175
random, unpredictable changes in population
genetic drift
176
An event eliminates most of the population. Initially there is a high mortality and individuals continue to be lost from the population until it reaches its’ minimum size. Most of the genetic diversity that was present earlier has now been lost.
bottle neck
177
When genetic isolating mechanisms are incomplete genes/alleles of one species may make their way, through hybridization, into another species.
Introgression
178
Population genetics; states that allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of other evolutionary influences.
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
p + q = 1.
179
the change in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population
microevolution
180
change that occurs at or above the level of species
macroevolution
181
Random mating of individuals within a population, the breeding individuals showing no tendency to choose partners with particular traits
Panmictic
182
The evolutionary history of a species or group of related species
Phylogeny
183
