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Unit 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the most important factor that holds a gene pool of a species together and prevents speciation?

A

Gene flow

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2
Q

Which term is used to describe populations that live close enough to interbreed

A

Sympatry

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3
Q

What prevents speciation from occurring in sympatric populations

A

Gene flow

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4
Q

List 4 species concepts

A
  1. Morphological (MSC)
  2. Biological (BSC)
  3. Ecological (ESC)
  4. Phylogenetic (PSC)
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5
Q

A species concept that is based on some physical distinction. It is the oldest and most frequently used approach.

A

Morphological Species Concept

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6
Q

A species concept that emphasizes genetic compatibility and ability to interbreed with other members of its own “kind”.

A

Biological Species Concept

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7
Q

A species concept that considers the sum total of all the interactions of a species with both the living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) environment (niche).

A

Ecological Species Concept

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8
Q

A species concept that emphasizes ancestor-descendent relationships and the continuity of a lineage.

A

Phylogenetic Species Concept

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9
Q

Isolating mechanisms prevent what?

A

Gene flow

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10
Q

When does mechanical isolation occur?

A
  1. Pre-zygotic
  2. Pre-mating
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11
Q

When does behavioral isolation occur?

A
  1. Pre-zygotic
  2. Pre- mating
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12
Q

When does temporal isolation occur?

A
  1. Pre-zygotic
  2. Pre-mating
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13
Q

When does ecological isolation occur?

A
  1. Pre-zygotic
  2. Pre-mating
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14
Q

When does gametic isolation occur?

A
  1. Pre-zygotic
  2. Post-mating
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15
Q

When does isolating mechanism of hybrid inviability occur?

A
  1. Post-zygomatic
  2. Post-mating
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16
Q

When does the isolating mechanism of hybrid infertility occur?

A
  1. Post-zygotic
  2. Post-mating
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17
Q

When does the isolating mechanism of hybrid “breakdown” occur?

A
  1. Post-zygotic 2. Post-mating
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18
Q

Studies the changes in chromosome structure and behavior

A

Cytogenetics

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19
Q

_________ Refers to the number of complete sets of genes

A

-ploidy

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20
Q

When genes are “rotated” on a chromosome the mutation is called ____________

A

Inversion

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21
Q

When the gene is copied and is located in two places on a chromosome the mutation is called __________

A

Duplication

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22
Q

When a section of the chromosome has been removed and relocated to a different position along the chromosome the mutation is called _____________

A

Translocation

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23
Q

When a section of a chromosome is missing the mutation is called ___________

A

Deletion

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24
Q

When a segment has been added to a chromosome the mutation is called ____________

A

Insertion

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25
Q

Fine scale mutations include…

A
  1. Nucleotide substitutions 2. Insertion/deletion (Indels)
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26
Q

Large scale mutations include…

A
  1. Inversion 2. Duplication 3. Translocation 4. Deletion 5. Insertion
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27
Q

When a new species is created because of spatial/geographic separation it is called __________

A

Allopatric speciation

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28
Q

When a new species develops because of the species are genetically separate it is called ___________

A

Sympatic speciation

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29
Q

The modern basis for classifying organisms is degree of evolutionary relatedness / relationships

A

Phylogenetic Systematics

(Cladistics)

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30
Q

Man who introduced The principles of geology (uniformitarianism) (1797-1875)

A

Charles Lyell

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31
Q

Developed the cladistic method, also known as phylogenetic systematics

A

Willi Hennig

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32
Q

Any describable feature or attribute of an organism

A

Taxonamic Character

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33
Q

A particular form or expression, one among several, for a given character. (needs to be at least two)

A

Character State

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34
Q

What are two Character types

A
  1. Qualitative
  2. Quantitative
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35
Q

States or catagories are created through the use of mutually exclusive, discriptive words or less often phrases

A

Qualitative

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36
Q

States are defined through measurements; a numericle value

A

Quantitative

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37
Q

__________ is a quantitative state where the measure for each state can take on only certain values, such as whole numbers.

A

Discontinuous

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38
Q

____________ is a quantitative state where the measure for a state can, in theory, take on any (decimal/fractional) value.

A

Continuous

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39
Q

Transformation series between ancestral and derived species can be listed in what three ways

A
  1. Unordered Character State
  2. Ordered Character State
  3. Polarized character State
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40
Q

When the character states between species are the same even though they have different numbers they are considered __________

A

Transformational Homologs

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41
Q

When there is an equivalence even though numbers dont match it is __________

A

Taxic Homologs

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42
Q

A species that is ancestral is known as ___________

A

Plesiomorphic

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43
Q

A species that is derived is known as __________

A

Apomorphic

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44
Q

A “summary” data table containing all of the character and character-state information with the former listed along the top and taxa (often but not always species) listed along the (left) side.

A

Character by Taxon Data Matrix

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45
Q

In a Character by Taxon Data Matrix the ancestral state is always represented by a ______

A

Zero (0)

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46
Q

A computer program is used to compare DNA; This shows similarities and differneces between different species DNA

A

Sequence Alignment

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47
Q

When one letter in a DNA sequence is changed it is called ____________

A

Nucleotide Substitution

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48
Q

When one nucleotide in a strand of DNA is changed and it changes from a purine to a purine or pyrimidine to a pyrimidine.

A

Transition

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49
Q

When one nucleotide in a strand of DNA is changed and it changes from a purine to a pyrimidine or vica versa.

A

Transversion

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50
Q
  1. The loss or gain of nucleotides
  2. When it is unknown whether there was a loss or gain it is called _________
A
  1. Deletion/Insertion
  2. Indel
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51
Q

The non coding part of a gene

A

Intron

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52
Q

the coding part of a gene

A

Exon

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53
Q

Characters in which the derived state is found in only one taxon; used for defining or diagnosing taxon but not used to construct relationships

A

Autapomorphic

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54
Q

Characters in which there are more than two states

A

Miltistate Characters

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55
Q

Characters in which there are only two states

A

Binary Characters

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56
Q

Taxa, usually species, that a researcher studies. The whole point of a cladistic analysis is to determine the relationship among members

A

Ingroup Taxa

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57
Q

Taxa used to polarize character states with end result being the root of the tree. (0 Character state)

A

Outgroup Taxa

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58
Q

Diagram that is used to show a nesting of groups

A

Venn Diagram

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59
Q

An unresolved tree or bush

A

Polytomy

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60
Q

Describe a node and internode in a cladogram

A
  • Node - represents a speciation event
  • Internode - area between nodes where changes are labeled for the speciation event
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61
Q

A group of organisms that includes a common ancestor and all of its descendents

A

Monophyletic

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62
Q

A branching diagram that (graphically) illustrates the evolutionary relationships of a set of taxa. It shows recency of common ancestry.

A

Cladogram

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63
Q

A group of organisms that includes some of the descendants of a common ancestor but not all of them

A

Paraphyletic

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64
Q

A group of organisms that include representatives drawn from two or more different lineages. groups are typically created when analogous structures, resulting from convergent evolution, are misinterpreted as true homologies.

A

Polyphyletic

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65
Q

Derived from a 17th-century philosopher named William of Ockham and has come to be known as “Ockham’s Razor.” What it says is that when we are faced with “competing” explanations for observable phenomena we select the one that makes or requires the fewest assumptions - we prefer the simplest, most succinct or direct scenario because that is the one that has the greatest probability of being correct.

A

Parsimony

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66
Q

A character shared by a set of species but not present in their common ancestor

A

Homoplasy

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67
Q

Counting and recording the movement of chromosomes in cell division is known as __________

A

Cytogenetics

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68
Q

When species breed during different times of the day or even different seasons or years. Interbreeding is unlikely even when found in the same geographic area

A

Temporal Isolation

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69
Q

Courtship rituals that attract mates can make an effective barrier that prevents mating is one example of…

A

Behavioral Isolation

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70
Q

A condition where the organism has more than two complete sets of chromosomes occurs frequently in plants, has led to new species that are adaptively superior to the original

A

Polyploidy

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71
Q

Occurs when an individual has more than two sets of chromosomes from a single species

A

Autopolyploidy

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72
Q

Occurs when two different species interbreed and produce a hybrid that is often sterile

A

Allopolyploidy

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73
Q

Process recombines alleles to produce genetic variation in the gametes/spores

A

Crossing over

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74
Q

When genetic isolating mechanisms are incomplete genes/alleles of one species may make their way, through hybridization, into another species.

A

Introgression

75
Q

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is maintained when the following occurs:

A
  • no natural selection
  • no genetic drift
  • no emigration
  • no immigration
  • no mutation
  • random mating
  • large population size
76
Q

The study of the spatial distributions of organisms and the factors that determine where organisms are found

A

Biogeography

77
Q

What are the factors that determine where species are found

A
  1. Locations of Ecoregions (Latitude)
  2. Mobility of Species
  3. Land masses where species can be found
78
Q

List some natural barriers that reproductively isolate species

A
  • mountain ranges
  • ice sheets/glaciers
  • rivers
  • oceans
  • deserts
79
Q

List some man made barriers that reproductively isolate species

A
  • roads/highways
  • railroads
  • fencing
  • right-of-ways
  • irrigation canals
  • agriculture
  • urban development
80
Q

Describe an edge effect

A

Edge effect refer to the changes in population or community structures that occur at the boundary of two habitats. Areas with small habitats exhibit especially pronounced edge effects that may extend throughout the range. As the edge effects increase, the boundary habitat allows for greater biodiversity.

81
Q

The study of the fossilization process

ie: How do fossils form? How are they preserved in the geologic record?

A

Taphonomy

82
Q

Any evidence of past life

A

Fossil

83
Q

the entire organism or some component of it represents the fossil;

some examples include leaves, stems, bones, or scales

A

direct fossil

84
Q

the organism itself is absent but there is some indication that it was present in the environment;

examples include tracks, bite marks, and dung (coprolites)

A

indirect fossil

85
Q

Fossil that needs a microscope to be seen

A

Micro fossil

86
Q

Fossil that can be see with the naked eye

A

Macro fossil

87
Q

Fossilization that occurs when a specimen is compressed or flattened by the weight of sediments and water. As part of this process the internal tissues of the organism weaken and collapse and any gases or water (and any soluble compounds it contains) are lost from the tissue. What remains are the (essentially two-dimensional) “coaly” organic remnants of the tissue.

A

Compaction/Impression

88
Q

What mode of preservation is seen here

A

Compaction/Impression

89
Q

What mode of preservation is seen here

A

Compaction/Impression

90
Q

Fossilization that occurs when water containing dissolved carbonates, silicates and iron compounds seep into and permeate tissues. These compounds later form precipitates that, in time, become rock. This rock constitues a matrix that “fills-in” the spaces and thus supports the tissue.

A

Permineralization/Petrifaction

91
Q

What mode of preservation is seen here

A

Permineralization/Petrifaction

92
Q

What mode of preservation is seen here

A

Permineralization/Petrifaction

93
Q

What mode of preservation is seen here

A

Permineralization/Petrifaction

94
Q

What mode of preservation is seen here

A

Permineralization/Petrifaction

95
Q

What mode of preservation is seen here

A

Casts/Molds

96
Q

Fossilization that occurs when extremely fine, electrically charged particles of sediment (colloids) are drawn to the surface of a specimen by electrostatic attraction. These particles then tightly bond to the surface and eventually lithify (become rock) to form a mold. Typically, the internal matter of the specimen is entirely replaced. This process is also known as authigenic preservation.

A

Casts/Molds

97
Q

What type of preservation is seen here

A

Casts/Molds

98
Q

What type of preservation is seen here

A

Casts/Molds

99
Q

Certain durable “hard” parts produced by some organisms, such as the calcium carbonate matrix created by coralline red and green algae, the shells and teeth of various marine/aquatic animals and the siliceous cell walls of diatoms, are preserved more or less unchanged.

A

Duripartic

100
Q

What type of preservation is seen here

A

Duripartic

101
Q

What type of preservation is seen here

A

Duripartic

102
Q

What type of preservation is seen here

A

Duripartic

103
Q

Fossilization that occurs when small organisms and portions of larger ones are caught in plant resins which then harden and undergo chemical changes to become a semiprecious stone.

A

Encasement

104
Q

What mode of preservation is seen here

A

Encasement

105
Q

Specimens found in protected environments characterized by high or low temperature and low humidity can be preserved in more or less unaltered form.

A

Dessication

106
Q

What mode of preservation is seen here

A

Dessication

107
Q

Specimens that are frozen can be preserved in more or less unaltered form since (bacterial/fungal) decay is inhibited.

A

Freezing

108
Q

These types of direct microfossils generally preserve very well in the geologic record. This is because a component of the cell wall is resistant to decay.

A

Pollen/Spores

109
Q

Cell wall component found in pollen/spores that is resistant to decay

A

sporopollenin

110
Q

These types of direct microfossils generally preserve very well in the geologic record because of the shells, or tests, they produce. These animals are, in fact, small, unicellular protozoa.

A

Radiolaria/Foraminifera

111
Q

the organism itself is absent but there is some indication that it was present in the environment; examples include footprints/tracks, teeth/bite marks, dung (coprolites), food caches (middens), dens and burrows.

A

Indirect/Trace

112
Q

What is required for the formation of a fossil

A
  • decay must be inhibited
    • by low temperature, low humidity, low oxygen, or acid pH
  • plant and animal parts must remain undisturbed
  • a source of sediments must be available
113
Q

What are some types of sediment/rock where fossils will form

A
  • limestone
  • dolomite
  • shale
  • siltstone
  • sandstone
  • diatomite
114
Q

What type of sedimentary rock is pictured

A

Shales (Clays)

115
Q

What type of sedimentary rock is pictured

A

Sandstone

116
Q

What type of sedimentary rock is pictured

A

Siltstone

117
Q

What type of sedimentary rock is pictured

A

Limestone

118
Q

What type of sedimentary rock is pictured

A

Dolomite

119
Q

What type of sedimentary rock is pictured

A

Diatomite

120
Q

In the following cladogram, which node occurred earliest in time?

A

Node 1

121
Q

In the cladogram which node represents the most recent common ancestor of terminal taxa B and C?

A

Node 2

122
Q

Which node represents the most recent common ancestor of terminal taxa A and B?

A

Node 1

123
Q

Which terminal taxon is B more closely related to, A or C?

How did you know?

A

B shares a more recent common ancestor with C (represented by node 2) than it does with A. (Their most recent common ancestor is represented by node 1.)

124
Q

Of the cladograms shown below, which one shows a different evolutionary history from the others

A

Cladogram 3. In it, B and C are shown as sharing the most recent common ancestor, whereas in the others, C shares its most recent common ancestor with D.

125
Q

Three taxonomic groups are circled on the cladogram below. Indicate what type of group they represent.

A

Group 1: Polyphyletic

Group 2: Monophyletic

Group 3: Paraphyletic

126
Q

A simple cladogram of vertebrate relationships is shown. A circle has been drawn around all the parts of the cladogram that traditionally would be known as “fish.”

What kind of group is “fish?”

A

Paraphyletic

127
Q

Of what monophyletic group is “choanae” a synapomorphy?

A

Choanata

128
Q

What synapomorphy is indicated for Tetrapoda?

A

Fingers and Toes

129
Q

How many character state changes here?

(How big is the tree?)

A

5

130
Q

Shared derived character states

A

synapomorphies

131
Q

When you add an outgroup to your cladogram you are doing what

A

rooting your tree

132
Q

Begining with the most recent and going back list the Eras we are responsibile for knowing

A
  • Cenozoic
  • Mesozoic
  • Palaeozoic
  • Precambrian
133
Q

List the periods that took place during the Palaeozoic Era

(Starting with the most recent)

A
  • Permian
  • Carboniferous
  • Devonian
  • Silurian
  • Ordovician
  • Cambrian
134
Q

List the periods that took place during the Mesozoic Era

(Starting with the most recent)

A
  • Cretaceous
  • Jurassic
  • Triassic
135
Q

List the periods that took place during the Cenozoic Era

(Starting with the most recent)

A
  • Quaternary
  • Tertiary
136
Q

How long ago was the extinction event that marked the end of the Precambrian Era and the beggining of the Palaeozoic Era

A

590 million years ago

137
Q

How long ago was the extinction event that marked the end of the Palaeozoic Era and the beggining of the Mesozoic Era

A

250 million years ago

138
Q

How long ago was the extinction event that marked the end of the Mesozoic Era and the beggining of the Cenozoic Era

A

65 million years ago

139
Q

The extinction event that is happening now marks the end of what Era

A

Cenozoic Era

140
Q

List some examples of Catastrophism

A
  • Vulcanism
  • Earthquakes
  • Tsunamis
  • Floods
  • Climate Change (rapid)
  • Extraterrestrial Impacts
141
Q

List some examples of Uniformitarianism

A
  • Sedimentation
  • Erosion / Weathering
  • Subsidence
  • Uplift
142
Q

Which survivorship type has a high death rate early in life

A

Type III

143
Q

Which survivorship type has a low death rate early in life and a high death rate late in life

A

Type I

144
Q

Which survivorship type has a steady death rate throughout thier life

A

Type II

145
Q

Compare r-selection to k-selection

A

r-selection

  • Characterized by unstable habitat
  • smaller body sizes
  • shorter lifespans
  • early age of first reproduction
  • number of reproductive episodes are once or few (semelparity)
  • large clutch size
  • little parental care
  • mortality high initially

k-selection

  • More stable habitats; fewer extremes that occur less often
  • larger body sizes
  • longer life span
  • later age of first reproduction
  • many reproductive episodes (iteroperity)
  • much smaller clutch sizes
  • condiderable parental care
  • mortality low initially
146
Q

What are the three characteristics of a population

A
  1. possess a spatial boundary (range)
  2. exhibit a distribution (biogeography)
  3. possess a temporal boundary (a speciation event creates

a new lineage and an extinction event terminates it)

147
Q

What kind of biogeographic distribution can species exhibit

A
  • endemic species
  • native species
  • non-native (alien or introduced)
  • circumpolar
  • cosmopolitan
  • disjunct
148
Q

What biogeographical distribution describes species that can be found all over the world

A

Cosmopolitan

149
Q

What biogeographical distribution describes species that can be found near the poles

A

Circumpolar

150
Q

What biogeographical distribution describes species that can be found in a well established area where they have not been brought in

A

Native species

151
Q

What biogeographical distribution describes species that can be found in only one spot in the world

A

Endemic

152
Q

What biogeographical distribution describes a main population found in a specific area but also isolated populations found way of the main population

A

Disjunct

153
Q

What biogeographical distribution describes a species that has been removed from their environment and introduced into a new environment; sometimes becoming an invasive species

A

Non-native species

154
Q

Hybrids survive or reproduce better than members of either parent species; continued production of hybrid individuals

A

Stability

155
Q

list the 3 types of dispersion patterns

A
  1. Uniform - territoriality
  2. Random - Solitary species/ environmental hetergeneity
  3. Clumped - Sociality / environmental hetergeneity
156
Q

Life history patterns consist of what 5 characteristics

A
  1. life span
  2. mating systems
  3. growth rates
  4. survivorship curves
  5. fertility schedules
157
Q

List and describe the 3 types of survivorship curves

A
  • Type 1 - small clutch size with high survivability early on
  • Type 2 - steady death rate throughout life span
  • Type 3 - large clutch size where many die early in life
158
Q

Fertility schedule is represented by what characteristics

A
  • Age of first reproduction
  • Clutch size
  • Number of reproductive events
159
Q

What are the three possible outcomes for hybrids over time

A
  • Rienforcement
  • Fusion
  • Stability
160
Q

Hybrids gradually cease to be formed due to strengthening of reproductive barriers

A

Reinforcement

161
Q

Two species (hybrids) fuse due to a weakening of reproductive barriers

A

Fusion

162
Q

New species change most as they branch from a parent species and then change little for the rest of their existance is…

A

Punctuated model

163
Q

Species diverge from one another more slowly and steadily over time

A

Gradual model

164
Q

Paleontologists Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould coined the term…

A

Punctuated equilibrium

165
Q

The presence of an abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell

A

Aneuploidy

166
Q

Process through which new species evolve from a single ancestral species while inhabiting the same geographic region.

A

Sympatric speciation

167
Q

An estimate for the size of a population based on the numbers of females and males that successfully breed; generally smaller than the total population

A

Effective population size

168
Q

The sum of a species use of the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) resources in its environment

A

Ecological Niche

169
Q

A group of spatially speparated populations of one species that interacts through immigration and emigration

A

Metapopulation

170
Q

What are the two tests that can be performed to see if two characters are truely homologous

A
  1. Test of similarity
  2. Character congruence
171
Q

one type of allelle per characteristic; no variation in allelles

A

monomorphic

172
Q

two allelles per characteristic

A

dimorphic

173
Q

A single large population is subdivided or fragmented into two or more subpopulations

A

allopatric speciation

174
Q

A small subset of the population leaves, or migrates thereby removing Their alleles from the “parent” population.

A

founder affect

175
Q

random, unpredictable changes in population

A

genetic drift

176
Q

An event eliminates most of the population. Initially there is a high mortality and individuals continue to be lost from the population until it reaches its’ minimum size. Most of the genetic diversity that was present earlier has now been lost.

A

bottle neck

177
Q

When genetic isolating mechanisms are incomplete genes/alleles of one species may make their way, through hybridization, into another species.

A

Introgression

178
Q

Population genetics; states that allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of other evolutionary influences.

A

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

p + q = 1.

179
Q

the change in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population

A

microevolution

180
Q

change that occurs at or above the level of species

A

macroevolution

181
Q

Random mating of individuals within a population, the breeding individuals showing no tendency to choose partners with particular traits

A

Panmictic

182
Q

The evolutionary history of a species or group of related species

A

Phylogeny

183
Q
A

Biology 2 (6 decks)

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