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biology 11 > unit 2 > Flashcards

unit 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Genetic material is made of?

A

DNA: Deoxyriboucleic acid
- contain genetic material

Genes: units of inherited information

coding for protien

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2
Q

chromatin

A
  • long thin fibres of dna and protien
  • these fibres condense when preparing for cell division (become chromosomes)
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3
Q

DNA Structure

A

double helix shape with long chains of subunits called nucleotides

sugar phosphate backbone
- deoxyribrose and phosphate group
- connected from sugar to phosphate

nitrogenous base (thymine, cytosine + adenine, guanine)

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4
Q

Genes and protiens

A
  • protiens are made of 20 kinda of amino acids (create a chan called polypeptides)
  • 2 or more polypeptides join together to make a particular protien
  • DNA specifies how to put amino acids in a particular order (called genetic code)
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5
Q

Genetic code

A

it takes 3 nulcleotides to create “code words”
- each set of 3 bases is known as a “codon”
0 64 possible combination of the 4 nucleotides

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6
Q

RNA

A
  • also has 4 bases but thymine is not used (instead uracil)
  • produces a stop codom that makes sure protien sequence is complete
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7
Q

3 steps of DNA Replication

A
  1. unzipping and unwinding
  2. complementation
  3. linkage
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8
Q
  1. unzipping and unwinding
A
  • involves enzymes (helicase) that break hydrogen bonds between nitrogen bases that hold the two strands together
  • the double helix unzips
  • gyrase is the enzyme that acts as a detangler
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9
Q
  1. complementation
A

base pairs come together

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10
Q

the cell cycle

A

interphase growth stage
- 90%of the cell cycle
- cell grows in size
- cells dna duplicates
1. Gap 1 (G1)
- cell grows bigger
- at end the cell either goes into rest or S phase
2. Synthesis (S)
- DNA is replicated
- chromatin in nucleas condenses into visable chromasomes
3. Gap 2 (G2)
- prepares for cell division

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11
Q

cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division)

A
  • seperation of cytoplasm and formation of new daughter cells
  • spindle fibres break down and disappear
  • nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes
  • cell membrane forms (cell wall between plant cells)
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12
Q

diploid number vs haploid number

A

diploid: total number of chromosomes (2n)
haploid: only contain one copy of each type of chromosome (n)

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13
Q

zygotes

A
  • contain chromosomes from both parents but does not contain double the number of chromosomes found in normal body cells
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14
Q

function of meosis

A
  • reproduction involves union of 2 cells to form a zygote
  • occurs only in reproductive organs called GONADS
  • it makes reproductive cells called GAMETES (haploids) (ovum or sperm)
  • first part of meosis reduces the number of chromosomes from diploid to haploid (reduction division)
    (human sperm cells = 23 chromosomes
    somatic cells = 46 chromosomes)
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15
Q

gametes

A
  • each human gametes has 22 autosomes and one sex chromosome (either X or Y)

22 of them are autosomes (not directly related in the sec of the individual)

females: XX
Males: XY

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16
Q

Meiosis I

A
  1. prophase I
    - homologous chromosomes form homologous pairs
    (similar chromosomes. but not identical, same genes but different forms of specific traits)
    - homologous pairs form a tetrad
    - come from both parent (1 each)
    - chromatids crossover to exchange genes to create genetic variation
  2. Metaphase I
    - spindle fibres attaches to centromere of chromosome
    - line up in the middle
    - positioned randomly (independant assortment)
  3. anaphase I
    - homologous chromosomes seperate and movie to opposite sides of cell
    - only one chromosome from each pair will movie to each pole of the cell
  4. Telophase I + cytokinesis
    - cell is split in half
    - chromosomes are still double

after meosis I = haploid

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17
Q

meiosis II

A
  • identical to mitosis
  • haploid (only chromatid)
  • the daughter cells at the end are called gametes in animals
  • in plants they are called gametes or spores
  • the end product is 4, non identical haploid cells
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18
Q

gametogenesis

A

production of gametes via meiosis resulting in sperm and ovum

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19
Q

spermatogenesis

A

process of male gamete production in animals

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20
Q

oogenesis

A

process of female gamete production in animals

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21
Q

process of spermatogenesis

A
  • meosis takes place in testes
  • starts with diploid germ cell (embroyonic cell that can develop into a gamete) called spermatogonium
  • the cell (spermatocyte) enlarges and undergoes meiosis 1 and 2
    final product = 4 haploid mature spermatozoa (sperms)
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22
Q

breeding season for spermatogenesis

A
  • humans can occur throughout the year
  • sperm production only occurs during a certain time of the year
  • occurs from puberty to death
  • take aproximatly 74 hours for a sperm to be created
  • produces 250m sperms every day in males
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23
Q

oogenesis process

A
  • takes place in the ovaries
  • starts with a diploid germ cell called oogonium
  • cell (oocyte) enlarges and undergoes mitosis 1 and 2
  • end the cytoplasm is not equally divided between daughter cells
24
Q

primary oocyte vs polar body

A

primary oocyte: the cell that receives the most cytoplasm
polar body: the other cell (not viable sex cell

  • only primary oocyte becomes an ovum
  • because the ovum must hold sufficient nutrients to support developing zygote in first few days after fertilization
25
Q

identical twins vs fraternal

A

identical twins: one egg+one sperm = fertilized egg splits into 2
= two embryos = twins

fraternal: 2 eggs+2sperms = two embryos
= twins

26
Q

Why did mendel use pea plants?

A
  • pea plants go through sexual reproduction
  • can self fertilize
    same plant provides both female and male gametes
  • can produce offspring with consistant traits for generation (true breeding)
27
Q

different generations

A

P generation: parental (true breeding plants)

f1 generation: the offspring of p generation (one trait corss/monohybrid cross)

f2 generation: offspring of f1 plants (3:1 ratio/mendelian ratio)

28
Q

law of segregation

A
  • 2 hereditatry factors for each trait studdied (called alleles)
  • inherited traits are determined by pairs factors/2 alleles of a gene
  • these 2 alleles segregate into each of the gametes of the parents during meiosis so each gamete contains one of the alleles
  • upon fertilization each offspring contains one allele from each parent
  • the form of the trait depends on whether they inherit dominant or recessive alleles for the trait
29
Q

alleles?

A

a different form of a gene
- a diploid organism have 2 alleles for each genes

30
Q

dominant

A
  • the form of a trait that always appears when an individual has an allele for it
31
Q

recessive

A

the form of a trait that only appears when an individual has 2 alleles for it

32
Q

genotype

A
  • the combination of alleles for any given trait or the organisms entire genetic makeup
33
Q

phenotype

A

the physical and phsiological traits of an organism or expression of a genotype

34
Q

one trait crosses vs two trait crosses

A

using two traits - of inheriting one trait has an impact on the other trait
two trait = dihybrid cross
ratio was: 9:3:3:1

35
Q

law of independent assortment

A

during gamete formation - the two alleles for one gene segregate or assort independently of the alleles for other genes

36
Q

incomplete dominance

A
  • condition in which neither of the 2 alleles for the same genes can completely conceal the presence of the other
  • phenotype between dominant and recessive
  • ratio is 1:2:1
  • middle colour (red-pink-white)
  • to represent: use superscripts for colour (C^R, C^W)
37
Q

codominance

A
  • both alleles are fully expressed
  • both colours are fully expresses (will look mixed in colour/paterns)
  • eg roan cows)
38
Q

sickle cell anemia

A
  • caused by a specific form of the gene that directs the synthesis of hemoglobin
  • hemoglobin carries oxygen in the blood
  • the hemoglobin molecule that is made in individuals with sickle cell allele leads to a C-shaped (or sickled) red blood cell
    –> the blood cell cannot transport oxygen effectively and cannot pass through small blood vessels
    –> can lead to blockages and tissue damages
  • represented by Hb^s(sickle cell), Hb^a (normal)
  • homo = sickle cell
  • hetero = have trait but hardly symptoms
39
Q

heterozygous advantage

A
  • situation in which heterozygous individuals have an advantage over both homozygous of either form
  • eg: having a sickle cell trait has more resistance to malaria
40
Q

antigen

A
  • carbohydrate that stimulates the body’s immune system
41
Q

human blood groups

A

the difference combinations of the 3 alleles produce 4 different phenotypes
- Blood type A
- Blood type B
- Blood type AB (codominant)
- Blood type O

42
Q

multiple alleles

A
  • a gene with more than 2 alleles
43
Q

RH factor

A
  • inherited protien found on the surface of red blood cells
  • if your blood cells have antigen = Rh positive
  • if you lack antigen = Rh negative
44
Q

sex linked traits

A

traits that are controlled by genes in either the X or Y chromosomes
- linked to the genes that determine sex
- are identified by the different rates of appearance between males and females

45
Q

sex linked genes

A
  • the x and y chromosomes have limited amount of genetic material compared to autosomes
  • the x chromosomes has about 2000 genes while the y chromosome has about 100
  • the most important genes are the sex-determination of genes
    males: XY
    Female: XX
    carriers = heterozygous
46
Q

sex-linked traits in humans

A
  • many are genetic disorders
  • if a disorder is x linked dominant = affected males pass the allele only to daughters
  • females can pass an x linked dominant allele to both sons and daughters
  • x linked recessive traits affect males more than females
47
Q

colour vision deficiency

A
  • individuals affected by CVD have difficulty distinguishing colours
  • red green CVD (x linked recessive disorder
48
Q

hemophilia

A
  • a condition that effects the body’s ability to produce proteins involved in blood clotting
  • people with hemophilia can suffer serious blood loss from simple cuts
  • x linked recessive trait that affects more than 3000. individuals in Canada
  • also called royal disease
49
Q

what are karyotypes?

A
  • set of chromosomes for each specific individual
50
Q

process of karyotyping?

A
  • a cell sample is collected and treated to stop cell division during metaphase is mitosis
  • the sample is stained which produces a banding pattern on the chromosome that is clearly visible under a microscope
  • the chromosomes are sorted and paired
  • ## they are numbered from 1 to 22 + sex cells
51
Q

point mutations

A
  • genetic mutations in DNA
  • they are mutations that have the nucleotides of DNA altered, which changes the make-up of the actual gene istelf
  • base pair substitution
  • base pair insertion
  • base pair deletion
52
Q

2 types of chromosomal errors during meiosis

A
  1. changes in chromosome structure
  2. changes to chromosome numeber
53
Q

the changes in chromosome structure

A
  • during chrossing over - chemical bonds that hold DNA together break and reform
  • sometimes the chromosomes do not reform correctly
  • sometimes non-homologous pairs cross over
  • this produces chromosomes containing genes not normally on that chromosome

errors include
- deletion
- duplication
- inversion
- translocation

53
Q

changes in chromosomes numbers

A
  • sometimes homologous chromosome pairs or sister chromatids do not seperate
  • non-disjunction
  • occurs during anaphase 1 or 11
  • dont seperate tto opposite poles but instead one pair is pulled towards the same pole
  • in result = gamete sthat have too many or less chromosomes
54
Q

Trisomies

A

trisomy: condition in which there is an extra chromosome due to non-disjunction
- most common trisomies are found in chromosome 21, 18, 13 as well as abnormalities in number of sex chromosomes

55
Q

monosomies

A

monosomy: condition in which one chromosome is lost die to non-disfunction
- gamete is missing one chromosome of homologous pair
- turner syndrome - missing chromosome

56
Q

Prenatal Genetic testing

A
  • tests preformed on a fetus based on testing for genetic-based abnormalities
  • involves blood tests and ultrasound
  • they can provide information about potential physical and chromosomal abnormalities
  • fetal proteins in mother’s blood are analyzed
  • fetus image

biology 11 (6 decks)

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