Unit 2 Flashcards
Anthropomorphism
the attribution of human characteristics or behaviour and emotions to an animals behaviour
anthropoids
joint legged invertebrates that are identified by their segmented bodies, typically with pared appendages
chordates
sea squirts and vertebrates
convergent evolution
the independent evolution of similar features in different species
divergent evolution
the process whereby groups from the same common ancestor evolve and accumulate differences, resulting in the formation of a new species
duration
the length of time each behaviour occurs during the observation period
elusive species
species that are difficult to see because of their habitat, behaviour or rarity
ethogram
list species-specific behaviours to be observed and recorded in the study
frequency
the number of times a behaviour occurs within the observation period
indicator species
species that, by their presence absence or abundance, can give information about an environmental factor
latency
the time between the stimulus occurring and the response behaviour
mark and recapture
method for estimating population size, a sample of the population is captured, marked and released (M); after an interval of time a second sample captured (C); if some individuals in the second sample are recaptures (R); estimate of the total population (N) can be calculated
model organisms
organisms that are either easily studied or have been well studied to provide information that can be applied to other species that are more difficult to study directly
nematodes
ask called roundworms; unsegmented thread like body; many of them are parasitic, living inside their host
phylogenetics
the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among individuals or groups of organisms
point count
sampling technique that involves the observer recording all individuals seen from a fixed point
taxonomy
the identification and naming of organisms and their classification groups, based on shared characteristics
absolute fitness
the ratio between the number of individuals of a particular genotype after selection to those before selection
bottleneck effect
a sharp reduction in the size of the population due to environmental events or human activities
co-evolution
the process by which two or more species revolve in response to selection pressures imposed by each other
commensalism
symbiosis in which only one species benefits (+/0)
evolution
the change over time in the proportion of individuals in a population differing in one or more inherited traits
female choice
a mechanism of sexual selection in which females asses males fitness and choose the male with which they will mate
fitness
a measure of the tendency of some organisms to produce more surviving offspring than competing members of the same species - also shows low parasitic burden
founder effect
when the gene pool of a new population is not representative of that in the original gene pool; occurs through isolation
gene pool
the total number of genes and their alleles in a population of one species
Hardy weinberg principle
in the absence of evolutionary influences, allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant over the generations
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
HW principle can only exist if:
- No natural selection
- Random mating
- No mutations
- No migration
- Large population
male-male rivalry
a mechanism of sexual selection in which males fight for females
mutualism
both species are interdependent on each other for resources; as both organisms gain (+/+)
natural selection
thé non random increase in frequency of advantageous alleles
parasitism
symbiosis in which the parasite benefits (energy and nutrients) at the expense of the host (+/-)
red queen hypothesis
in a co-evolutionary relationship, change in the traits of one species can act as a selection pressure on the other species
relative fitness
the ratio of the number of surviving offspring per an individual of a particular genotype to the number of surviving offspring per individual is the most successful genotype
sexual dimorphism
females are generally inconspicuous; males usually have more conspicuous markings, structures and behaviours
sexual selection
thé non random process involving the selection of alleles that increase the individuals chances of mating and producing offspring
symbiosis
co-evolved intimate relationships between members of two different species
chiasmata
a point at which paired chromosome remain in contact during the first metaphase of meiosis and at which crossing over and exchange of genetic material occurs between the strands
crossing over
The exchange of genetic material between non sister chromatids of two homologous, chromosomes that result in recombinant chromosomes during meiosis
cytokinesis
The physical process of cell division, which divides the cytoplasm of a parental cell into two daughter cells
hermaphrodites
Species that have functioning male and female reproductive organs in each individual
hétérogamétique
dissimilar sex chromosomes for example, mammalian males where the Y chromosomes is much smaller than the X chromosome resulting in two kinds of gambit
homogamétique
sex chromosomes that do not differ in morphology, resulting in only one kind of gamete
homologous pair
A pair of chromosomes of the same size, centromere position and sequence of gene; one is of maternal origin and the other paternal
horizontal gene transfer
Inheritance of genetic material within a generation
Independent assortment
formation of random combinations of chromosomes in meiosis, and on genes of different pairs of homologous chromosomes by the passage of one of each diploid pair of homologous chromosomes into each gamete independently of each other pair
linked genes
Jeans located on the same chromosome
Meiosis
The division of the nucleus that results in the formation of haploid gametes from a diploid gametocyte
parthenogenesis
development of an offspring from a female gamete without fertilisation
recombination
The establishment of new combinations of alleles following crossing over
SRY gene
Gene on the Y chromosome that determines development of a male by expressing a protein called testes determining factor
vegetative cloning
Any form of asexual reproduction occurring in plants, in which a new plant grows from a fragment of the parents plant or a specialised reproductive structure
X chromosome inactivation
A process by which most of one X chromosome is randomly inactivated to prevent a double dose of gene products which could be harmful to cells
fixed action pattern
Species specific sequence of behaviours in which one behaviour leads to the next
honest signals
Characteristics that can indicate fitness and favourable alleles that increase the chances of survival of offspring or low parasite burden, suggesting a healthy individual
K selected species
Reading strategy in species that are larger live longer and produce relatively few larger offspring. They give a high level of parental care and offspring, have a high probability of surviving to adulthood
lek
A communal area in which two or more males of a lekking species perform courtship displays called lekking
Male – male rivalry
Males will fight for dominance and access to females for meeting through real or ritualised conflict
Monogamy
The meeting of a pair of animals to the exclusion of all others
parental investment
Any parental expenditure that benefits offspring, it increases the offspring, chances of surviving and reproductive success at the expense of the parents ability to invest in another offspring
Polyandry
One female meets with a number of males in the same breeding season
polygamy
Individuals of one sex, having more than one mate
polygyny
One male meet with the number of females in the same breeding season
reversed, sexual dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism, in which females are more conspicuous than males
R selected species
greeting strategy in species that are smaller mature more rapidly and produce a larger number of smaller offspring each of which receives limited parental care and most will not reach adulthood
sexual dimorphism
The differences in appearance between males and females of the same species, such as in colour , shape, size and structure as a product of sexual selection
Sexual selection
Selection for characteristics that have little survival benefit for the individual, but increase their chances of meeting
Species specific sign stimulus
A feature or action that indicates intent, often to start courtship
Courtship
Behaviour that leads to breeding success, courtship behaviour and birds and fish can be a result of species, specific stimuli and instinctive fixed action pattern responses
antigenic variation
Change between different antigens during the course of infection of a host
B lymphocytes
White blood cells that produce specific antibodies in response to specific antigens
Competitive exclusion
where the niches of two species are so similar that one declines to local extinction
Definitive host
The organism on, or in which the parasite reaches sexual maturity
Ectoparasite
Parasites that lives on the surface of its host
Endoparasite
Parasites that lives within the tissues of its host
epidemiology
The study of the outbreak and spread of infectious diseases
Extended phenotype
The expression of a parasites genotype into the phenotype of its host, by manipulating the host phenotype to facilitate its transmission
fundamental niche
The niche that is occupied in the absence of any inter specific competition
gametocytes
The precursors of male and female gametes, otherwise known as the gametes Mother cell
Heard immunity threshold
The density of resistant hosts in the population required to prevent an epidemic
hydrolytic enzymes
Any enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of a chemical board
inflammatory response
Injured or wounded areas become warm and red due to increase blood flow, bringing white cells for defence
intermediate host
A host that is normally used by parasite in the course of its life cycle, and in which it may multiply asexually, but not sexually
latency in parasites
Viruses, escape, immune surveillance by integrating their genome and host genomes existing in an inactive state
LEDC
Less economically developed country
memory lymphocyte
Lymphocyte specific for a specific antigen; they are retained in the body following infection, and can produce a secondary response to the same antigen
Natural killer cells
lymphocytes responsible for destroying abnormal cells. They can identify an attached to cells infected with viruses, releasing chemicals that lead to cell death by inducing apoptosis
Niche
A multidimensional summary of tolerances and requirements of the species
non-specific defences
General response to infection, including phagocytosis
Phagocyte
White blood cell in non-specific defence in golfing and destroying foreign antigens; may also present antigens to lymphocytes
Realised niche
The niche that is occupied in response to inter-specific competition
Resource partitioning
where the realised niches are sufficiently different, that potential competitors can coexist by sharing resources
R.N. a retroviruses
Viruses that use the enzyme reverse transcript is to form DNA from RNA. This is then inserted into the genome of the host cell.
Specific cellular defences
Activity of the immune system in response to a particular pathogen triggered by antigens located on the surface of cells
Transmission
The spread of a parasite to a host
Vaccines
Contain antigens that will elicit an immune response and help develop memory cells
Vector
An organism that does not cause disease itself, but which spreads the parasite from one host to another
Virulence
The harm caused to a host species by a parasite
