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AH Biology > Unit 1 > Flashcards

Unit 1 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Affinity chromatography

A

A technique used to separate and purify proteins based on a specific binding interaction between an immobilised ligand and its binding partner.

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2
Q

Bright-field microscopy

A

Technique used to observe whole organisms, parts of organisms, thin sections of dissected tissues or individual cells.

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3
Q

buffer

A

a solution used to set and maintain a particular pH

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4
Q

centrifugation

A

a process that uses centrifugal forces to separate components of different densities in a mixture.

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5
Q

fluorescence microscopy

A

microscopy technique that uses specific fluorescent labels to bind to and visualise certain molecules or structures within cells or tissues.

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6
Q

Native page

A

Molecules not denatured, separated based on shape, size and charge

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7
Q

SDS page

A

Molecules denatured and given equally negative charge. Separating proteins on size alone.

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8
Q

Growth factors

A

proteins that promote cell growth and proliferation

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9
Q

Haemocytometer

A

Microscopic grid used to estimate the total number of cells within a sample

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10
Q

Hazard

A

anything that poses a potential risk or threat to an individual or the environment.

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11
Q

immunoassay

A

technique used to detect and identify specific proteins

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12
Q

inoculum

A

starting material used to grow a culture from

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13
Q

iso-electric point

A

the pH at which a soluble protein has no net charge and will precipitate out of a solution.

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14
Q

Linear dilution series

A

A series of dilutions that differ by an equal interval

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15
Q

Log dilution series

A

A series of dilutions that differ by a constant proportion

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16
Q

primary cell lines

A

a culture of cells is isolated directly from animal or plant tissues; they have a finite life-span and limited expansion capacity.

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17
Q

reporter enzyme

A

an enzyme linked to an antibody specific to a protein antigen; used in immunoassay techniques.

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18
Q

serum

A

source of growth factors, hormones, lipids and minerals for the culture of cells.

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19
Q

supernatant

A

the liquid that lies above a solid residue or pellet in centrifugation

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20
Q

turbidity

A

a measure of the degree to which a fluid loses its transparency due to the presence of suspended particles or cells in suspension

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21
Q

vital staining

A

a technique in which a harmless dye is sued to stain either living tissue cells or dead cells for microscopical observation to allow a viable cell count to be made.

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22
Q

western blotting

A

an analytical technique used to identify and locate specific proteins in a sample of tissue homogenate or extract based on their ability to bind to specific antibodies.

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23
Q

allosteric enzymes

A

enzymes that change conformation in response to a modulator.

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24
Q

alpha helix

A

Polypeptide chain, coiled into a helix with hydrogen bonding occurring to maintain the arrangement

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25
Q

Alternative RNA splicing

A

removal of non-coding introns from a primary mRNA transcript to leave only the coding exons. several different mature Transcripts can be produced from a single primary transcript.

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26
Q

beta pleated sheets

A

polypeptide chain arranged in rows with the chain folding in parallèle or anti parallel arrangements

stabilised by hydrogen bonds

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27
Q

confirmation

A

structural arrangement of the polypeptide chains within a protein, it can be altered by factors such as pH and the bonding of ligands and modulators

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28
Q

cooperativity

A

changes in binding of a target molecules to one subunit chnaged the affinity of the other other subunits for the target molecule

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29
Q

disulphide bridge

A

a strong covalent bond that stabilises the tertiary and quaternary structures of many proteins

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30
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A

a network of membrane tubules within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell, continuous with the nuclear membrane

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31
Q

exon

A

section of RNA that is usually retain during splicing

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32
Q

glycoprotein

A

a protein with a carbohydrate added by post-translational modification.

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33
Q

golgi apparatus

A

a series of flattened membrane discs that packages proteins into membrane-bound vesicles inside the cell, before the vesicles are sent to their destination. site of post translational modifications (addition of carbohydrates)

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34
Q

hydrolyse

A

a class of enzymes that use water to break chemical bonds

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35
Q

ligand

A

a substance that can bind to a protein, it is complementary

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36
Q

lysosome

A

a modified golgi vesicle containing hyrolytic enzymes

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37
Q

modulators

A

these bond to a secondary site on an enzyme to alter its conformation: positive modulators activate enzymes and negative modulators deactivate them

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38
Q

prosthetic group

A

a non-protein unit tightly bound to a protein and necessary for its function

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39
Q

protein kinases

A

catalyse the transfer of a phosphate group from a donor (ATP) to an acceptor (Phosphorylation)

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40
Q

protein phosphatase

A

an enzyme that removes a phosphate group from its substrate

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41
Q

primary structure

A

sequence in which amino acids are found within a protein

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42
Q

secondary structure

A

hydrogen bonding occurring within a polypeptide forming alpha helixes or beta pleated sheets

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43
Q

tertiary structure

A

binding of many types occurring between the R groups of amino acids within a protein

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44
Q

quaternary structure

A

the arrangement of multiple folded polypeptide subunits connected together

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45
Q

protéolytique cleavage

A

a major form of pst-translational modification; it occurs when a protease cleaves one or more bonds in a target protein to activate, inhibit or destroy the proteins activity

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46
Q

rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

organelle made up of membranes with ribosomes attached,

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47
Q

signal sequence

A

a short stretch of amino acids at one end of the polypeptide that determines its eventual location in a cell

48
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

a membranous organelle found in most eukaryotic cells; it synthesises lipids and steroid hormones

49
Q

electrochemical gradient

A

a gradient of electrochemical potential, usually for an ion that can move across a membrane, consisting of the difference in solute concentration and difference in charge across a membrane

50
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

the passive transport of substances across the membrane through specific transmembrane proteins

51
Q

fluid mosaic model

A

a model that describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of components including a phospholipid bilateral, which gives the membrane a fluid character, and cholesterol, proteins and carbohydrates

52
Q

glucose symport

A

an integral membrane protein involved in the transport to glucose and sodium iona across the cell membrane at the same time and in the same direction

53
Q

integral membrane proteins

A

also called intrinsic proteins, they have one or more segments embedded in the phospholipid bilayer.

54
Q

ligand gated channels

A

transmembrane protein channels controlled by the binding of signal molecules

55
Q

membrane potential

A

an electrical gradient that forces ions to move passively in one direction; positive ions are attracted to the negative side of the membrane and vice versa.

It is the electrical potential difference and is created when there is a difference in electrical charge on the two sides of the membrane

56
Q

peripheral membrane proteins

A

membrane proteins that adhere only temporarily to either side of a membrane with which they are associated

57
Q

sodium potassium ATPase

A

the enzyme that acts as the sodium potassium pump - removing three sodium ionas from the cell and taking two potassium ions back into the cell during a cycle of action

58
Q

transmembrane proteins

A

proteins that span a membrane and act as channels or transporters of ions

59
Q

transporter proteins

A

a membrane protein involved in the movement of ions, small molecules and macromolecules across a protein.

They bind to the specific substance and unfit a conformational change to transfer the solutes across the membrane

60
Q

voltage gated channels

A

a class of transmembrane proteins that form ion channels, they are activated by changes in the electrical membrane potential near the channel

61
Q

action potential

A

a wave of electrical excitation along a neurons plasma membrane

62
Q

cones

A

photoreceptors cells responsible for colour vision; only function in bright light

63
Q

cyclic GMP

A

a second messager for visual transduction: it is present in high concentrations in receptor cells.

As part of triggering a nerve impulse: it is broken down by PDE and its reduction in concentration affects the function of ion channels in membrane of rod cells

64
Q

depolarisation

A

an electrical state in an excitable cell whereby the inside of the cell is made less negative relative to the outside that it is at the resting membrane potential

65
Q

diabetes mellitus

A

an inability to regulate blood glucose levels; in type 1 there is a failure to produce insulin; in type 2 there is a loss of function of insulin receptors of cell surface

66
Q

extracellular signalling molecule

A

cues such as growth factors, hormones, cytokines and neurotransmitters designed to transmit specific information to target cells.

67
Q

GLUT 4 glucose transporter proteins

A

the insulin-regulated glucose transporter; insulin triggers the movement of GLUT 4 transporters to the membrane surface, increasing the uptake of glucose to be converted to glycogen.

68
Q

G proteins

A

also known as guanine nucleotide-binding proteins; a family of proteins that act as molecular switches inside cells, which are involved in transmitting signals from a variety of stimuli outside a cell to its interior.

In triggering of a nerve impulse: Photoexcited rhodopsin activate hundred of G proteins called transfixing, each of which activate one molecule of phosphodiesterase (PDE)

69
Q

hormone response elements (HREs)

A

a short sequence of DNA within the promoter of a gene that is able to bind to a specific hormone-receptor complex and therefore regulate transcription

(They are the specific sites on DNA which cytosol complexes bind to and affect transcription)

70
Q

hormone receptor complex

A

formed when steroid hormones bind to specific receptors in the cytosol or the nucleus; they bind to specific sites on DNA and affect gene expression

71
Q

hydrophilic signalling molecule

A

not able to pass through membrane and so signal is transducer across by receptor molecules on the cell surface

72
Q

hydrophobic signalling molecule

A

can diffuse directly through membranes ad so their receptor molecules can be within the nucleus

73
Q

ion concentration gradient

A

gradients created by pump enzymes that transport ionic solutes

74
Q

opsin

A

a light-sensitive protein molecule found in animals

75
Q

phosphodiesterase (PDE)

A

Activated by transducins and catalysed the hyrdolysis of cyclic GMP

76
Q

phosphorylation cascade

A

a series of events in which one kinase activates the next one in a sequence; phosphorylation cascades can result in the phosphorylation of many proteins as a result of the original signalling event

77
Q

photon

A

basic unit of light

78
Q

photoreceptor cells

A

rods and cones - found in the retina and capable of visual photo transduction

79
Q

repolarisation

A

the restoration of a membrane potential following depolarisation

80
Q

resting membrane potential

A

the difference in ion concentration between the inside and outside of a cell

81
Q

retinal

A

a light sensitive molecule within the eye that bonds with opsin to form photoreceptors

82
Q

rhodopsin

A

the retinal-opsin complex in rod cells

in triggering a nerve impulse: when retinal absorbs photon of light, rhodopsin changes conformation to photexcited rhodopsin and activated G proteins

83
Q

rods

A

photreceptor cells in the retina that function in dim light and respond to low light intensities - they do not allow colour perception

84
Q

signal transduction

A

conversion of extracellular signals into an intracellulaire réponse

85
Q

threshold value

A

when the depolarisation reaches about -55mV, a neuron will fire an action potential.

86
Q

transcription factor

A

a protein that binds to specific DNA sequences, thereby controlling the fate of transcription of genetic information from DNA to mRNA

87
Q

transducin

A

a protein naturally expressed in vertebrate retina rods and cones

(maybe a G protein?)

88
Q

anaphase

A

phase in which spindle micro tubules shorten by depolymerisation, sister chromatids are separated and the chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles

89
Q

apoptosis

A

programmed cell death triggered by cell death signals that can be internal or external

90
Q

caspase cascade

A

protease enzymes involved in a series of reactions that destroy a cell

91
Q

cell cycle

A

G1 - cell growth
S - DNA replication
G2 - Prepares to Divide
M- Divides by mitosis

92
Q

cell cycle checkpoints

A

checkpoints during G1, G2 and M that asses the readiness of a cell to enter the next stage of the cell cycle.

G1 - size of cell checked and damage
G2 - Success of replication and damage to DNA
M - Prgression halted until chromosomes aligned correctly and securely tied to spindles

93
Q

centromere

A

the specialised DNA sequence of a chromosome that links a pair of sister chrimatids

94
Q

cyclic proteins

A

proteins that control the progression of cells through the cell cycle by activating cyclin-dependent kinases.

95
Q

Cyclic dependent kinases

A

When activated by cyclin, CDKs cause the phosphorylation of proteins, which stimulates the cell cycle.

96
Q

Cytokinesis

A

Division of cytoplasm to form two daughter cells

97
Q

cytoskeleton

A

a microscopic network of protein filaments and tubules in the cytoplasm of many living cells that supports their shape and function.

98
Q

death signal molecules

A

external and internal signals that result in the activate ion of protease enzymes called caspases, which cause apoptosis.

99
Q

G1 cyclin CDK

A

phosphorylation by this inhibits the retinoblastoma protein; this allows the transcription of the genes that code for proteins needed for DNA replication; allowing cells to progress from G1 to S phase.

100
Q

growth factors

A

a naturally occurring substance, usually a protein or steroid hormone. capable of stimulating cellular growth, proliferation healing, and cellular differentiation.

101
Q

interphase

A

phase of the cell cycle in which the cell spends majority of its time; it consists of G1, S and G2.

102
Q

kinetochores

A

a complex of proteins associated with the centromere of a chromosome during cell division, to which the spindle microtubules attach.

103
Q

metamorphosis

A

process that involves a significant change in an organisms physical form during development

104
Q

metaphase

A

phase in which chromosomes align at the metaphase plate and attach to spindle fibres.

105
Q

microtubule organising centre

A

structure found in eukaryotic cells from which microtubules are produced for the formation of spindle fibres.

106
Q

microtubules

A

microscopic hollow tubes made of the proteins rub upon that are a part of the cells cytoskeleton

107
Q

mitosis

A

division of the nucleus to form two new nuclei, each with a full complement of chromosomes

108
Q

p53

A

a tumour suppressor protein taht can stimulate DNA repair, arrest the cell cycle or cause cell death by the activation of caspases

109
Q

prophase

A

phase in which DNA condenses into chromosomes, each consisting of two sister chromatids; the nuclear membrane breaks down, the spindle forms, and chromosomes attach via their kinetochores in their centromere region

110
Q

proto-oncogene

A

a normal gene, usually involved in the control of cell growth or division, which can mutate to form a tumour- promoting oncogene.

111
Q

retinoblastoma protein (Rb)

A

a tumour suppressor protein that is dysfunctional is several major cancers; one function of Rb is to prevent excessive cell growth by inhibiting cell cycle prgression until a cell is ready to divide; when phosphorylated, it allows DNA replication in the S phase.

112
Q

spindle fibres

A

microtubules to which chromosomes are attached by kinetochores during cell division

113
Q

telophase

A

phase in which the chromosomes decondense and nuclear membranes form around them

114
Q

tubulin

A

the protein that polymerises into long chains or filaments that form microtubules, which serve as a cytoskeleton for living cells.

115
Q

tumour promoting oncogene

A

a mutated proto-oncogene that has the potential to cause cancer

AH Biology (3 decks)

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