Unit 2 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the order of intermediates of the Calvin Cycle?
A
RuBP (5C sugar) - PGA - G3P - Glucose
2
Q
What do C4 AND CAM plants have in common?
A
they both use PEPC to do initial carbon fixation
3
Q
What are two products of the light reaction phase?
A
ATP and NADPH
4
Q
A pigment is a compound that
A
absorbs certain wavelengths of light
5
Q
Where does the Calvin Cycle take place in?
A
chloroplast stroma
6
Q
Why do cells communicate?
A
- coordinate activities
- organism development
- reproduction
- defense (immune system)
7
Q
What is yeast?
A
a single-celled fungi
8
Q
What is a quorum sensing?
A
bacteria can sense when population has become a critical number, and then the bacteria can coordinate certain functions
ex: bio-luminescent, toxin production in pathogenic bacteria, biofilm formation
9
Q
How does quorum sensing work in biolumenecent squid?
A
auto-inducers are produced by bacteria, when levels of auto-inducers are too high, bacterial membrane picks up on it and turns on gene to generate light
10
Q
What is local signaling?
A
cells in close contact
cell secrete signals and target cells
paracrine: cell produces signals, signals leave cell through secretory vessels, diffuse, then come into contact with target cells
synaptic: nervous system, gap between nerve cells called synapse, cell of nervous system sends neurotransmitters to target cells
11
Q
What is long-distance signaling?
A
usually involves hormones,
endocrine signaling
hormones travel through bloodstream to specific targets
12
Q
What is direct contact cell communication?
A
- signals can go between gap junctions between animal cells
- signals can go between plasmodesmata between plant cells
- cell-to-cell (like immune system) cells can physically recognize by bonding/contacting
13
Q
What is the role of transmembrane proteins (plasma membrane)?
A
bond to signal molecules (ligand)
help carry signal response
14
Q
What are the three stages of cell signaling?
A
Reception - Transduction - Response
15
Q
What is the reception stage of cell signaling?
A
bonding of ligand to receptor, often in membrane (sometimes in cell),
when binds changes shape of receptor protein so protein can react with other proteins in the cell
16
Q
What is the transduction stage of cell signaling?
A
signal is relayed within cell, interaction between receptor protein and other molecules, can be amplified by cascade reaction (signal gets multiplied)
17
Q
What is the response stage of cell signaling?
A
activation of cellular response
18
Q
Where are receptors located?
A
in target cells
19
Q
What is GPCR cell signaling?
A
G protein coupled receptor
GPCR resides in plasma membrane, interacts with G-protein, G-protein is able to bind to GDP or GTP (similar to ATP) molecules,
inactive: G protein bound to GDP
when receptor is active by binding ligand, it change shape to interact with G protein
G protein binds with GTP, provides energy to activate enzyme - cellular response
after, GTP is hydrolized (loses phosphate) and becomes GDP
(G-protein bound with GTP activates another protein(enzyme))
20
Q
What is Tyrosine Kinases cell signaling?
A
receptor is also an enzyme
tyrosine - amino acid that can receive phosphate group
kinases - enzymes capable of transferring phosphate groups from ATP to other molecules
ligand binds with monomer receptor tyrosine, two halves of tyrosine come together and are now a dimer. they are also now active
activated kinase enzyme transfers phosphate groups from 6 ATP to tyrosine parts of a protein
active receptor transfer phosphate groups to relay proteins - then cellular response(s)
21
Q
What is the equation for photosynthesis?
A
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
22
Q
What are the products of photosynthesis?
A
Oxygen and glucose
23
Q
What is reduced in photosynthesis?
A
CO2
24
Q
What is oxidized in photosynthesis?
A
H20
25
What is light dependent reactions?
Photosynthesis I and II, needs light
26
What is light independent reactions?
Calvin Cycle, does not need light to operate
27
What is the visible spectrum?
light you can see
28
What pigments are used in photosynthesis?
chlorophyll and cartenoids
29
What wavelengths of light are used in photosynthesis?
violet-blue and orange-red
30
What determines the wavelength's strength?
shorter wavelengths have more energy
31
What part of a plant allows CO2 to enter?
stomata
32
What is the electron carrier in photosynthesis?
NADP+, becomes NADPH (reduces CO2)
33
Where are photosynthesis pigments located?
in the thylakoids of plants
34
What was Engelman's experiment?
used spectrum of light to determine what algae used in photosynthesis
35
What are the two types of chlorophylls?
chlorophyll a (blueish green) reaction center (does most of the work)
and chlorophyll b (yellowish green)
36
What is the the structure of chlorophyll?
porphyrin ring: light absorbing head of chlorophyll with magnesium atom center
hydrocarbon tail
37
What is photosystem I?
reaction center P700
electron transport chain from photosystem II
two products: NADH and ATP
38
What is photosystem II?
reaction center P680
absorbs light then goes into high energy state
goes through electron transport chain
39
What is the equation of the Calvin Cycle?
6CO2 + 12NADPH + 18ATP --> 1 hexose + 18ADP + 12NADP+
40
What are the phases of the Calvin Cycle?
1. Carbon reduction
5C sugar, RuBP - PGA
2. Reduction
G3P - glucose output
3. Regeneration of RuBP
G3P back into RuBP
41
What are types of pigments?
Cartenoids (absorb blue, accessory pigments)
carotene (orange)
xanthophyll (yellow)
42
What is excitation by light?
fluorescence
43
What are the two phases(?) of photosynthesis besides Calvin Cycle?
hill reactions (make ATP) and sugar building (in stroma)
44
Where is ATP made in photosynthesis?
thylakoid by chemiosis
45
What are the products of the Calvin Cycle?
ADP and NADP+
46
What are the 5 phases of mitosis?
Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
47
What are the 3 stages of cell communication?
signal reception - transduction (signal relayed) - response
48
When do CAM plants absorb CO2?
the stomata open at night
49
What happens during metaphase?
chromosomes line up on cell plate, spindle fibers attatch
50
What happens during prometaphase?
chromatins thicken, nuclear envelope disintegrates, spindle starts
51
What happens during anaphase?
chromosomes are pulled apart by spindle
52
What are gap junctions?
channels that allow for intercellular connection and the passage of ions and small molecules
53
How are gap junctions made?
hemichannels that are composed of connexins
54
Where do hemichannels reside?
In the outer layer of the cell membrane so that they can connect to hemichannels of other cells
55
What is the structure of a hemichannel?
6 connexin proteins
56
Where are connexins made?
in the ER
57
Gap junction flowchart:
ER makes connexins - connexins go to golgi apparatus - 6 connexins form one hemichannel - vesicles deliver hemichannel to cell membrane - hemichannel diffuses through the membrane - arrives at a gap junction, can connect with neighboring hemichannels/cells - lysosomes break off old parts and replace with newer ones - lysosomes break down proteins into amino acids that get released into cytoplasm
58
What is a cleavage furrow?
the pinching of the cytoplasm to separate into two cells, in animal cells
59
What prevents mutations in cell division?
checkpoints
60
What is the centromere?
attachment points of chromatids
61
What is chiasma?
crossing of chromosomes
62
What is a centriole?
2 organelles that compose each centrosome in mitosis
63
What is the centrosome?
2 centrioles that helps organize the spindle
64
What is an allele?
different versions of a same gene
65
When does crossing over happen in cell division?
meiosis in prophase I, sections of sister chromatids are exchanged with each other
66
What is a diploid?
having pairs of chromosomes
67
What is a haploid?
having only one of each chromosome
68
What are gametes?
sex cells, egg and sperm
69
What is cytokinesis?
division of the cytoplasm
70
What is a gene?
sequence of DNA that codes for a protein
71
What is transcription?
from DNA to RNA
72
What is translation?
from RNA to proteins
73
What are homologous chromosomes?
chromosomes in pairs
74
What is a homolog?
the chromosome pair
75
What is interphase?
mitosis, period of growth
76
What is meiosis?
cell division that creates gametes
77
What are microtubules?
parts of the spindle that form in prophase
78
What is a polyploid?
having more than 2 chromosomes in a set
79
What is aneuploidy?
having different numbers of chromosomes
80
What are somatic cells?
non-reproductive body cells
81
What is synapsis?
pairing of homologs with 4 total chromatids, meiosis
82
What is a zygote?
union of sperm and egg
83
What are the events in interphase?
G1 - generating ribosomes, intense growth
Synthesis - DNA gets copied
G2 - more growth, organelles multiple, microtubules form
GO - "off ramp", cells stop dividing
84
What is the difference between meiosis and mitosis?
mitosis creates identical cells, meiosis is sexual reproduction that creates new varieties
85
What are the two main events in cell division?
interphase (growth) and division
86
How many chromosomes do humans have?
23 types, 46 total
87
What is the main difference(s) between photosystem I and II?
photosystem II has enzymes that splits water
photosystem I has an electron transport chain that turns NAD+ to NADPH
88
What are the three types of life cycles?
gametic meiosis, sporic meiosis, zygotic meiosis
89
How many cells are made in cell reproduction?
Meiosis - 1 diploid makes 4 haploid
Mitosis - 1 cell makes 2
90
Whats the difference between DNA and chromatins?
chromatins are DNA and proteins that are tightly coiled in nucleus
91
What is karyokinesis?
division of cell, mitosis, except cytokinesis
92
What is the difference between homologous chromosomes and sister
chromatids?
homologous chromosomes are pairs of the chromosome type, sister chromatids are joined together via the centromere and then are split in anaphase
93
What is prophase synapsis?
chromatids wrap around each other
94
What are recombinant chromosomes?
different chromosomes from the exchange/crossing over in meiosis
95
What happens during meiosis I and II?
Meiosis I - homologs pair up and then are separated (chromosome reduction)
Meiosis II - sister chromatids separate, mitosis (chromatids separation)
96
How is DNA compacted?
with histone proteins
97
Which cell reproduction halves chromosomes?
meiosis
98
What is the G1 checkpoint in cell cycle?
PDGF binds to cell receptor protein
99
Do cancer cells stop dividing?
no, and they bypass checkpoints
100
What is the difference between a benign and malgnant tumors?
benign is smooth and has regular, malgnant is rough and reproduces faster
101
What is metastasis?
cancer growth that continues past initial site, secondary growth away from primary site
102
What is nondisjunction?
failure of chromosomes to separate properly
103
What are ion channel receptors?
receptor itself is a channel that allows certain ions to pass the membrane
certain signal molecule binds to the receptor protein which changes the shape and allows it to open
104
What is apoptosis?
programmed cell death
105
What is the difference between cytokinesis in animal and plant cells?
animal cells - cleavage furrow, cytoplasm pinches and splits
plant cells - new cell wall forms from the inside out
(ex: the cell wall grows in the middle, solidifies, then separates the two cells)
106
What are nucleosomes?
"beads on a string",
107
What is binary fission?
in bacteria cell reproduction, one chromosome gets replicated and each go to opposite sides of a cell, the cell membrane forms and the cells separate
1 cell to 2
108
What are meristems?
cells in plants that have cellular reproduction, before the root cap
109
What are Mendel's 4 principles?
1. traits determined by heritable factors (genes)
Principle of Unit Characters: pairs that parents donate, different forms (alleles)
2. one factor (allele) can mask another
Principle of Dominance
3. factors segregate during reproduction
Principle of Segregation (meiosis I)
4. different traits segregate independently
Principle of Independent Assortment
110
What are exceptions and extensions to Mendel's model?
- co-dominance (both alleles present)
- partial/incomplete dominance (one not fully masking another)
- multiple alleles (more than 2)
- epistasis (gene interactions, not alleles, genes can mask other genes)
- polygenic inheritance (many genes contribute, ex: skin color)
111
What are the probability rules in genetics?
2^n
112
What were ideas before Mendel?
blending inheritance, use or disuse, Lamarckian inheritance (parents have what they pass on)
113
What is epistasis?
gene interactions, ex: lab fur colors, as pigment is dictated by genes/whether pigment is deposited in hair or not
114
What is the product rule?
probability of 2 events at same time is product of 2 separate probabilities
115
What are the results of an AaBb x AaBb?
9:3:3:1
phenotypes:
1/16 - ab (recessive)
9/16 - AB (dominant)
3/16 - Ab
3/16 - aB
116
What is the addition rule?
if there is more than 1 way for an event to occur then add separate possibilities
117
Apply the rule of 2n to PpYySs:
2^3 = 8
8 x 8 = 64 possibilities
(8 by 8 box/punnet square)
(there are three pairs, p, y, and s)
118
What is a phenotype?
observable results of genetics, ex: Aa = white
119
What is a genotype?
genetic makeup, ex: Aa
120
What is a monohybrid cross?
test for inheritance of a single gene/loci
3:1
121
What is a dihybrid cross?
test for inheritance of two gene/loci simultaneously
9:3:3:1
122
What is dependent assortment?
traits are linked
123
What is independent assortment?
genes are separate factors
124
What are the levels of a dihybrid cross?
Parent generation: true breeding
AA x aa
Filial gen 1: all dominant traits
Aa
Filial gen 2: mixed
Aa, AA, Aa, aa
125
What would explain 2 light blue flowers crossing that results in the phenotypes white, light blue, and dark blue?
partial dominance
P = BB x bb
dark blue x whiite
F1 = Bb
light blue
F2 = bb, Bb, Bb, BB
126
What is cytoplasmic inheritance?
organelles inherited from cytoplasm of the egg of mother, not through genes,
diseases by mitochondria defects
127
Who was Barbara McClintock?
discovered "jumping genes", studies corn genetics and linked genes to chromosomes
proved when chromosome was altered, phenotype changed as well
128
What is the sex determining gene in humans?
Y
129
What are autosomal chromosomes?
non-sex genes
130
What are sexual chromosomes?
genes linked by sex chromosomes
131
What are the determinations of sex?
- Z-W system (chickens, females determine)
-XY system (humans, males determine)
- X-0 system (XX or X)
- haploid-diploid system (bees)
132
What are X linked genes?
colorblindness, hemophilia, etc.,
genes carried by the X gene but are not present within the female carrying them, son can inherit from the mom
133
What is a Barr body?
one deactivated X chromosome in females
(X produces proteins, but XX in females should not double the protein production)
134
Genes on the same chromosome are:
linked
135
Genes are named after:
the mutant type
136
The typical type of a gene is:
the wild type
137
Is linkage part of independent assortment?
no, it is an exception
138
Can genes on different types of chromosomes cross over and split with each other?
no, only genes of the same chromosome can split/cross over
ex: hair genes cannot cross over to eye genes, but genes for hair texture can cross with each other
139
What is having one extra chromosome?
trisomy, ex: 3N
140
What is having one chromosome missing?
monosomy, ex: 1N
141
How does aneuploidy affect genetics?
animals usually spontaneously abort, plants are fine (affect fruit shape)
142
What are the ends of DNA?
3' (grows from) and 5'
143
How is DNA replicated?
A/T and G/C are across
stands are unzipped, replication fork
144
Phases/products of light reactions:
starting reactant: h2o
ending product: o2
NADPH produced
ATP produced
145
Phases/products of Calvin Cycle/light independent reactions:
starting reactant: co2
ending product: C6H12O6 glucose
NADPH used, converted back into NAD+
ATP used
146
What are three types of RNA by transcription?
mRNA (messenger, holds "recipe")
terminal gene products: rRNA (ribosomal) and tRNA (transfer)
147
What two things can happen to RNA besides transcription?
splicing/cutting itself (catalyze by splicing bonds in DNA)
removal of introns at the spliceosome
exons stay and can make up domains
148
Where does transcription start?
promoter
149
What carries out transcription?
RNA polymerase
150
Where does transcription end?
terminator
151
Eukaryotic transcription includes:
transcription factors
152
What is transcription?
DNA to RNA
153
What is translation?
RNA to proteins
154
What is a translator?
tRNA, anti-codon matching codon
155
How many sites does a ribosome have?
3
156
What is elongation?
RNA gets longer through nucleotides and peptide bonds
157
What are ribozymes?
catalytic RNA that splice peptide bonds, self-splicing
158
What is used in RNA instead of T in DNA?
U
159
What is semi-conservative replication?
each new molecule contains half of the old molecule
160
What makes up the ladder bar parts in DNA?
hydrogen bonds
161
How can a strand of DNA be replicated after separation?
each strand serves as a model for the other, so they can be replicated ((kind of backwards, since one strand is 3' to 5' and the other is 5' to 3'))
162
How many replication forks are created at the origin?
2
163
How many origins of replications are in eukaryotes?
multiple
164
What is dispersal replication?
mix of new and old parts
165
What are origins in replication?
designated sites to replicate DNA
166
What is a replication fork?
DNA being separated a little at a time, unzipping but not completely
167
What "unwinds" DNA?
helicase enzyme that breaks hydrogen bonds
168
What prevents DNA unzipping from becoming extra super coiled?
topoisomerase enzyme untwists the other end
169
What is the top strand?
leading strand, continuous replication
170
What is the lagging strand?
every time helix is unzipped, RNA primer has to be attached (not continuous)
171
What does most of the synthesizing in DNA replication?
DNA polymer
172
What happens to primers after replication?
they are removed
173
What seals gap between Okasaki fragments?
DNA ligase
174
What are Okasaki fragments?
short sections of DNA on lagging strand from discontinuous replication
175
What is the starting place to replicate DNA?
RNA primer
176
How is DNA built?
off of RNA
177
What side of the chain is DNA built off?
3', nucleotide tri-phosphates are added
178
What prevents strands of DNA to bond back together during unzipping/replication fork?
single strand binding proteins
179
What are the anti-parallel strands?
the strands being copied differently but simultaneously, the top strand and the lagging strand
180
What is the preventative of mutations in DNA replication?
"proofreading" feature by DNA polymerase that cuts out faulty bases
(mutations can still occur after replication and then those mutated DNA can be replicated)
181
What is central dogma?
gene expression includes RNA
stable phenotype has to have accurately copied DNA and RNA has to carry out the DNA's instructions to proteins
182
What is complimentary base pairing (relating to transcription)?
A = U
C = G
T = A
183
What translates RNA?
tRNA, tRNA synthetases loads on amino acids
184
How many sites does a ribosome have?
3
185
What is a missense mutation?
change in code that leads to wrong amino acids being added during translatio
186
What type of mutation on the codon has the most effect?
frameshift (insertion-deletion)
187
What is a nonsense mutation?
codon changed to stop codon which prematurely stops translation
188
What is a silent mutation?
does not affect protein sequence, when one codon is substituted for another but still attaches the right amino acid
189
What is a frameshift mutation?
one codon is missing, the whole code is shifted (insertion-deletion)
190
What is an example of codominance?
blood types in humans
191
What is translocation?
one part of a chromosome "crosses over" to a chromosome that is not homologous
192
What are types of changes to a genetic structure in chromosomes?
inversion, deletion, duplication, translocation
