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Unit 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the order of intermediates of the Calvin Cycle?

A

RuBP (5C sugar) - PGA - G3P - Glucose

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2
Q

What do C4 AND CAM plants have in common?

A

they both use PEPC to do initial carbon fixation

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3
Q

What are two products of the light reaction phase?

A

ATP and NADPH

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4
Q

A pigment is a compound that

A

absorbs certain wavelengths of light

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5
Q

Where does the Calvin Cycle take place in?

A

chloroplast stroma

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6
Q

Why do cells communicate?

A
  • coordinate activities
  • organism development
  • reproduction
  • defense (immune system)
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7
Q

What is yeast?

A

a single-celled fungi

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8
Q

What is a quorum sensing?

A

bacteria can sense when population has become a critical number, and then the bacteria can coordinate certain functions
ex: bio-luminescent, toxin production in pathogenic bacteria, biofilm formation

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9
Q

How does quorum sensing work in biolumenecent squid?

A

auto-inducers are produced by bacteria, when levels of auto-inducers are too high, bacterial membrane picks up on it and turns on gene to generate light

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10
Q

What is local signaling?

A

cells in close contact
cell secrete signals and target cells
paracrine: cell produces signals, signals leave cell through secretory vessels, diffuse, then come into contact with target cells
synaptic: nervous system, gap between nerve cells called synapse, cell of nervous system sends neurotransmitters to target cells

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11
Q

What is long-distance signaling?

A

usually involves hormones,
endocrine signaling
hormones travel through bloodstream to specific targets

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12
Q

What is direct contact cell communication?

A
  • signals can go between gap junctions between animal cells
  • signals can go between plasmodesmata between plant cells
  • cell-to-cell (like immune system) cells can physically recognize by bonding/contacting
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13
Q

What is the role of transmembrane proteins (plasma membrane)?

A

bond to signal molecules (ligand)
help carry signal response

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14
Q

What are the three stages of cell signaling?

A

Reception - Transduction - Response

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15
Q

What is the reception stage of cell signaling?

A

bonding of ligand to receptor, often in membrane (sometimes in cell),
when binds changes shape of receptor protein so protein can react with other proteins in the cell

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16
Q

What is the transduction stage of cell signaling?

A

signal is relayed within cell, interaction between receptor protein and other molecules, can be amplified by cascade reaction (signal gets multiplied)

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17
Q

What is the response stage of cell signaling?

A

activation of cellular response

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18
Q

Where are receptors located?

A

in target cells

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19
Q

What is GPCR cell signaling?

A

G protein coupled receptor
GPCR resides in plasma membrane, interacts with G-protein, G-protein is able to bind to GDP or GTP (similar to ATP) molecules,
inactive: G protein bound to GDP
when receptor is active by binding ligand, it change shape to interact with G protein
G protein binds with GTP, provides energy to activate enzyme - cellular response
after, GTP is hydrolized (loses phosphate) and becomes GDP
(G-protein bound with GTP activates another protein(enzyme))

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20
Q

What is Tyrosine Kinases cell signaling?

A

receptor is also an enzyme
tyrosine - amino acid that can receive phosphate group
kinases - enzymes capable of transferring phosphate groups from ATP to other molecules
ligand binds with monomer receptor tyrosine, two halves of tyrosine come together and are now a dimer. they are also now active
activated kinase enzyme transfers phosphate groups from 6 ATP to tyrosine parts of a protein
active receptor transfer phosphate groups to relay proteins - then cellular response(s)

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21
Q

What is the equation for photosynthesis?

A

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

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22
Q

What are the products of photosynthesis?

A

Oxygen and glucose

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23
Q

What is reduced in photosynthesis?

A

CO2

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24
Q

What is oxidized in photosynthesis?

A

H20

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25
Q

What is light dependent reactions?

A

Photosynthesis I and II, needs light

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26
Q

What is light independent reactions?

A

Calvin Cycle, does not need light to operate

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27
Q

What is the visible spectrum?

A

light you can see

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28
Q

What pigments are used in photosynthesis?

A

chlorophyll and cartenoids

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29
Q

What wavelengths of light are used in photosynthesis?

A

violet-blue and orange-red

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30
Q

What determines the wavelength’s strength?

A

shorter wavelengths have more energy

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31
Q

What part of a plant allows CO2 to enter?

A

stomata

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32
Q

What is the electron carrier in photosynthesis?

A

NADP+, becomes NADPH (reduces CO2)

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33
Q

Where are photosynthesis pigments located?

A

in the thylakoids of plants

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34
Q

What was Engelman’s experiment?

A

used spectrum of light to determine what algae used in photosynthesis

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35
Q

What are the two types of chlorophylls?

A

chlorophyll a (blueish green) reaction center (does most of the work)

and chlorophyll b (yellowish green)

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36
Q

What is the the structure of chlorophyll?

A

porphyrin ring: light absorbing head of chlorophyll with magnesium atom center

hydrocarbon tail

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37
Q

What is photosystem I?

A

reaction center P700
electron transport chain from photosystem II
two products: NADH and ATP

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38
Q

What is photosystem II?

A

reaction center P680
absorbs light then goes into high energy state
goes through electron transport chain

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39
Q

What is the equation of the Calvin Cycle?

A

6CO2 + 12NADPH + 18ATP –> 1 hexose + 18ADP + 12NADP+

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40
Q

What are the phases of the Calvin Cycle?

A
  1. Carbon reduction
    5C sugar, RuBP - PGA
  2. Reduction
    G3P - glucose output
  3. Regeneration of RuBP
    G3P back into RuBP
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41
Q

What are types of pigments?

A

Cartenoids (absorb blue, accessory pigments)
carotene (orange)
xanthophyll (yellow)

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42
Q

What is excitation by light?

A

fluorescence

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43
Q

What are the two phases(?) of photosynthesis besides Calvin Cycle?

A

hill reactions (make ATP) and sugar building (in stroma)

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44
Q

Where is ATP made in photosynthesis?

A

thylakoid by chemiosis

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45
Q

What are the products of the Calvin Cycle?

A

ADP and NADP+

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46
Q

What are the 5 phases of mitosis?

A

Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

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47
Q

What are the 3 stages of cell communication?

A

signal reception - transduction (signal relayed) - response

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48
Q

When do CAM plants absorb CO2?

A

the stomata open at night

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49
Q

What happens during metaphase?

A

chromosomes line up on cell plate, spindle fibers attatch

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50
Q

What happens during prometaphase?

A

chromatins thicken, nuclear envelope disintegrates, spindle starts

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51
Q

What happens during anaphase?

A

chromosomes are pulled apart by spindle

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52
Q

What are gap junctions?

A

channels that allow for intercellular connection and the passage of ions and small molecules

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53
Q

How are gap junctions made?

A

hemichannels that are composed of connexins

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54
Q

Where do hemichannels reside?

A

In the outer layer of the cell membrane so that they can connect to hemichannels of other cells

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55
Q

What is the structure of a hemichannel?

A

6 connexin proteins

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56
Q

Where are connexins made?

A

in the ER

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57
Q

Gap junction flowchart:

A

ER makes connexins - connexins go to golgi apparatus - 6 connexins form one hemichannel - vesicles deliver hemichannel to cell membrane - hemichannel diffuses through the membrane - arrives at a gap junction, can connect with neighboring hemichannels/cells - lysosomes break off old parts and replace with newer ones - lysosomes break down proteins into amino acids that get released into cytoplasm

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58
Q

What is a cleavage furrow?

A

the pinching of the cytoplasm to separate into two cells, in animal cells

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59
Q

What prevents mutations in cell division?

A

checkpoints

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60
Q

What is the centromere?

A

attachment points of chromatids

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61
Q

What is chiasma?

A

crossing of chromosomes

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62
Q

What is a centriole?

A

2 organelles that compose each centrosome in mitosis

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63
Q

What is the centrosome?

A

2 centrioles that helps organize the spindle

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64
Q

What is an allele?

A

different versions of a same gene

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65
Q

When does crossing over happen in cell division?

A

meiosis in prophase I, sections of sister chromatids are exchanged with each other

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66
Q

What is a diploid?

A

having pairs of chromosomes

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67
Q

What is a haploid?

A

having only one of each chromosome

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68
Q

What are gametes?

A

sex cells, egg and sperm

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69
Q

What is cytokinesis?

A

division of the cytoplasm

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70
Q

What is a gene?

A

sequence of DNA that codes for a protein

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71
Q

What is transcription?

A

from DNA to RNA

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72
Q

What is translation?

A

from RNA to proteins

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73
Q

What are homologous chromosomes?

A

chromosomes in pairs

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74
Q

What is a homolog?

A

the chromosome pair

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75
Q

What is interphase?

A

mitosis, period of growth

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76
Q

What is meiosis?

A

cell division that creates gametes

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77
Q

What are microtubules?

A

parts of the spindle that form in prophase

78
Q

What is a polyploid?

A

having more than 2 chromosomes in a set

79
Q

What is aneuploidy?

A

having different numbers of chromosomes

80
Q

What are somatic cells?

A

non-reproductive body cells

81
Q

What is synapsis?

A

pairing of homologs with 4 total chromatids, meiosis

82
Q

What is a zygote?

A

union of sperm and egg

83
Q

What are the events in interphase?

A

G1 - generating ribosomes, intense growth
Synthesis - DNA gets copied
G2 - more growth, organelles multiple, microtubules form
GO - “off ramp”, cells stop dividing

84
Q

What is the difference between meiosis and mitosis?

A

mitosis creates identical cells, meiosis is sexual reproduction that creates new varieties

85
Q

What are the two main events in cell division?

A

interphase (growth) and division

86
Q

How many chromosomes do humans have?

A

23 types, 46 total

87
Q

What is the main difference(s) between photosystem I and II?

A

photosystem II has enzymes that splits water
photosystem I has an electron transport chain that turns NAD+ to NADPH

88
Q

What are the three types of life cycles?

A

gametic meiosis, sporic meiosis, zygotic meiosis

89
Q

How many cells are made in cell reproduction?

A

Meiosis - 1 diploid makes 4 haploid
Mitosis - 1 cell makes 2

90
Q

Whats the difference between DNA and chromatins?

A

chromatins are DNA and proteins that are tightly coiled in nucleus

91
Q

What is karyokinesis?

A

division of cell, mitosis, except cytokinesis

92
Q

What is the difference between homologous chromosomes and sister
chromatids?

A

homologous chromosomes are pairs of the chromosome type, sister chromatids are joined together via the centromere and then are split in anaphase

93
Q

What is prophase synapsis?

A

chromatids wrap around each other

94
Q

What are recombinant chromosomes?

A

different chromosomes from the exchange/crossing over in meiosis

95
Q

What happens during meiosis I and II?

A

Meiosis I - homologs pair up and then are separated (chromosome reduction)
Meiosis II - sister chromatids separate, mitosis (chromatids separation)

96
Q

How is DNA compacted?

A

with histone proteins

97
Q

Which cell reproduction halves chromosomes?

A

meiosis

98
Q

What is the G1 checkpoint in cell cycle?

A

PDGF binds to cell receptor protein

99
Q

Do cancer cells stop dividing?

A

no, and they bypass checkpoints

100
Q

What is the difference between a benign and malgnant tumors?

A

benign is smooth and has regular, malgnant is rough and reproduces faster

101
Q

What is metastasis?

A

cancer growth that continues past initial site, secondary growth away from primary site

102
Q

What is nondisjunction?

A

failure of chromosomes to separate properly

103
Q

What are ion channel receptors?

A

receptor itself is a channel that allows certain ions to pass the membrane

certain signal molecule binds to the receptor protein which changes the shape and allows it to open

104
Q

What is apoptosis?

A

programmed cell death

105
Q

What is the difference between cytokinesis in animal and plant cells?

A

animal cells - cleavage furrow, cytoplasm pinches and splits

plant cells - new cell wall forms from the inside out
(ex: the cell wall grows in the middle, solidifies, then separates the two cells)

106
Q

What are nucleosomes?

A

“beads on a string”,

107
Q

What is binary fission?

A

in bacteria cell reproduction, one chromosome gets replicated and each go to opposite sides of a cell, the cell membrane forms and the cells separate
1 cell to 2

108
Q

What are meristems?

A

cells in plants that have cellular reproduction, before the root cap

109
Q

What are Mendel’s 4 principles?

A
  1. traits determined by heritable factors (genes)
    Principle of Unit Characters: pairs that parents donate, different forms (alleles)
  2. one factor (allele) can mask another
    Principle of Dominance
  3. factors segregate during reproduction
    Principle of Segregation (meiosis I)
  4. different traits segregate independently
    Principle of Independent Assortment
110
Q

What are exceptions and extensions to Mendel’s model?

A
  • co-dominance (both alleles present)
  • partial/incomplete dominance (one not fully masking another)
  • multiple alleles (more than 2)
  • epistasis (gene interactions, not alleles, genes can mask other genes)
  • polygenic inheritance (many genes contribute, ex: skin color)
111
Q

What are the probability rules in genetics?

A

2^n

112
Q

What were ideas before Mendel?

A

blending inheritance, use or disuse, Lamarckian inheritance (parents have what they pass on)

113
Q

What is epistasis?

A

gene interactions, ex: lab fur colors, as pigment is dictated by genes/whether pigment is deposited in hair or not

114
Q

What is the product rule?

A

probability of 2 events at same time is product of 2 separate probabilities

115
Q

What are the results of an AaBb x AaBb?

A

9:3:3:1
phenotypes:
1/16 - ab (recessive)
9/16 - AB (dominant)
3/16 - Ab
3/16 - aB

116
Q

What is the addition rule?

A

if there is more than 1 way for an event to occur then add separate possibilities

117
Q

Apply the rule of 2n to PpYySs:

A

2^3 = 8
8 x 8 = 64 possibilities
(8 by 8 box/punnet square)
(there are three pairs, p, y, and s)

118
Q

What is a phenotype?

A

observable results of genetics, ex: Aa = white

119
Q

What is a genotype?

A

genetic makeup, ex: Aa

120
Q

What is a monohybrid cross?

A

test for inheritance of a single gene/loci
3:1

121
Q

What is a dihybrid cross?

A

test for inheritance of two gene/loci simultaneously
9:3:3:1

122
Q

What is dependent assortment?

A

traits are linked

123
Q

What is independent assortment?

A

genes are separate factors

124
Q

What are the levels of a dihybrid cross?

A

Parent generation: true breeding
AA x aa
Filial gen 1: all dominant traits
Aa
Filial gen 2: mixed
Aa, AA, Aa, aa

125
Q

What would explain 2 light blue flowers crossing that results in the phenotypes white, light blue, and dark blue?

A

partial dominance
P = BB x bb
dark blue x whiite
F1 = Bb
light blue
F2 = bb, Bb, Bb, BB

126
Q

What is cytoplasmic inheritance?

A

organelles inherited from cytoplasm of the egg of mother, not through genes,
diseases by mitochondria defects

127
Q

Who was Barbara McClintock?

A

discovered “jumping genes”, studies corn genetics and linked genes to chromosomes
proved when chromosome was altered, phenotype changed as well

128
Q

What is the sex determining gene in humans?

A

Y

129
Q

What are autosomal chromosomes?

A

non-sex genes

130
Q

What are sexual chromosomes?

A

genes linked by sex chromosomes

131
Q

What are the determinations of sex?

A
  • Z-W system (chickens, females determine)
    -XY system (humans, males determine)
  • X-0 system (XX or X)
  • haploid-diploid system (bees)
132
Q

What are X linked genes?

A

colorblindness, hemophilia, etc.,
genes carried by the X gene but are not present within the female carrying them, son can inherit from the mom

133
Q

What is a Barr body?

A

one deactivated X chromosome in females
(X produces proteins, but XX in females should not double the protein production)

134
Q

Genes on the same chromosome are:

A

linked

135
Q

Genes are named after:

A

the mutant type

136
Q

The typical type of a gene is:

A

the wild type

137
Q

Is linkage part of independent assortment?

A

no, it is an exception

138
Q

Can genes on different types of chromosomes cross over and split with each other?

A

no, only genes of the same chromosome can split/cross over
ex: hair genes cannot cross over to eye genes, but genes for hair texture can cross with each other

139
Q

What is having one extra chromosome?

A

trisomy, ex: 3N

140
Q

What is having one chromosome missing?

A

monosomy, ex: 1N

141
Q

How does aneuploidy affect genetics?

A

animals usually spontaneously abort, plants are fine (affect fruit shape)

142
Q

What are the ends of DNA?

A

3’ (grows from) and 5’

143
Q

How is DNA replicated?

A

A/T and G/C are across
stands are unzipped, replication fork

144
Q

Phases/products of light reactions:

A

starting reactant: h2o
ending product: o2
NADPH produced
ATP produced

145
Q

Phases/products of Calvin Cycle/light independent reactions:

A

starting reactant: co2
ending product: C6H12O6 glucose
NADPH used, converted back into NAD+
ATP used

146
Q

What are three types of RNA by transcription?

A

mRNA (messenger, holds “recipe”)
terminal gene products: rRNA (ribosomal) and tRNA (transfer)

147
Q

What two things can happen to RNA besides transcription?

A

splicing/cutting itself (catalyze by splicing bonds in DNA)
removal of introns at the spliceosome
exons stay and can make up domains

148
Q

Where does transcription start?

A

promoter

149
Q

What carries out transcription?

A

RNA polymerase

150
Q

Where does transcription end?

A

terminator

151
Q

Eukaryotic transcription includes:

A

transcription factors

152
Q

What is transcription?

A

DNA to RNA

153
Q

What is translation?

A

RNA to proteins

154
Q

What is a translator?

A

tRNA, anti-codon matching codon

155
Q

How many sites does a ribosome have?

A

3

156
Q

What is elongation?

A

RNA gets longer through nucleotides and peptide bonds

157
Q

What are ribozymes?

A

catalytic RNA that splice peptide bonds, self-splicing

158
Q

What is used in RNA instead of T in DNA?

A

U

159
Q

What is semi-conservative replication?

A

each new molecule contains half of the old molecule

160
Q

What makes up the ladder bar parts in DNA?

A

hydrogen bonds

161
Q

How can a strand of DNA be replicated after separation?

A

each strand serves as a model for the other, so they can be replicated ((kind of backwards, since one strand is 3’ to 5’ and the other is 5’ to 3’))

162
Q

How many replication forks are created at the origin?

A

2

163
Q

How many origins of replications are in eukaryotes?

A

multiple

164
Q

What is dispersal replication?

A

mix of new and old parts

165
Q

What are origins in replication?

A

designated sites to replicate DNA

166
Q

What is a replication fork?

A

DNA being separated a little at a time, unzipping but not completely

167
Q

What “unwinds” DNA?

A

helicase enzyme that breaks hydrogen bonds

168
Q

What prevents DNA unzipping from becoming extra super coiled?

A

topoisomerase enzyme untwists the other end

169
Q

What is the top strand?

A

leading strand, continuous replication

170
Q

What is the lagging strand?

A

every time helix is unzipped, RNA primer has to be attached (not continuous)

171
Q

What does most of the synthesizing in DNA replication?

A

DNA polymer

172
Q

What happens to primers after replication?

A

they are removed

173
Q

What seals gap between Okasaki fragments?

A

DNA ligase

174
Q

What are Okasaki fragments?

A

short sections of DNA on lagging strand from discontinuous replication

175
Q

What is the starting place to replicate DNA?

A

RNA primer

176
Q

How is DNA built?

A

off of RNA

177
Q

What side of the chain is DNA built off?

A

3’, nucleotide tri-phosphates are added

178
Q

What prevents strands of DNA to bond back together during unzipping/replication fork?

A

single strand binding proteins

179
Q

What are the anti-parallel strands?

A

the strands being copied differently but simultaneously, the top strand and the lagging strand

180
Q

What is the preventative of mutations in DNA replication?

A

“proofreading” feature by DNA polymerase that cuts out faulty bases
(mutations can still occur after replication and then those mutated DNA can be replicated)

181
Q

What is central dogma?

A

gene expression includes RNA
stable phenotype has to have accurately copied DNA and RNA has to carry out the DNA’s instructions to proteins

182
Q

What is complimentary base pairing (relating to transcription)?

A

A = U
C = G
T = A

183
Q

What translates RNA?

A

tRNA, tRNA synthetases loads on amino acids

184
Q

How many sites does a ribosome have?

A

3

185
Q

What is a missense mutation?

A

change in code that leads to wrong amino acids being added during translatio

186
Q

What type of mutation on the codon has the most effect?

A

frameshift (insertion-deletion)

187
Q

What is a nonsense mutation?

A

codon changed to stop codon which prematurely stops translation

188
Q

What is a silent mutation?

A

does not affect protein sequence, when one codon is substituted for another but still attaches the right amino acid

189
Q

What is a frameshift mutation?

A

one codon is missing, the whole code is shifted (insertion-deletion)

190
Q

What is an example of codominance?

A

blood types in humans

191
Q

What is translocation?

A

one part of a chromosome “crosses over” to a chromosome that is not homologous

192
Q

What are types of changes to a genetic structure in chromosomes?

A

inversion, deletion, duplication, translocation

bio 110 (3 decks)

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