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Advanced Higher Biology > Unit 2 > Flashcards

Unit 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Hazards in Fieldwork

A

Hazards in fieldwork include adverse weather conditions, difficult terrain, problems associated with isolation, and contact with harmful organisms

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2
Q

How should sampling be carried out

A

in a manner that minimises impact on wild species and habitats

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3
Q

What consideration must be given when carrying out fieldwork

A

Consideration must be given to rare and vulnerable species and habitats that are protected by legislation

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4
Q

Point count

A

A point count involves the observer recording all individuals seen from a fixed point count location.

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5
Q

What is used to sample sessile or slow moving organisms

A

Quadrats, of suitable size and shape, or transects are used for plants and other sessile or slow-moving organisms

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6
Q

What is used to sample mobile species

A

Capture techniques, such as traps and nets, are used for mobile species

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7
Q

What techniques are used to sample elusive species

A

Elusive species can be sampled directly using camera traps or an indirect method, such as scat sampling

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8
Q

How can an organism be identified and classified

A

Identification of an organism in a sample can be made using classification guides, biological keys, or analysis of DNA or protein

Organisms can be classified by both taxonomy and phylogenetics

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9
Q

Taxonomy

A

Taxonomy involves the identification and naming of organisms and their classification into groups based on shared characteristics

Classic taxonomy classification is based on morphology.

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10
Q

Phylogenetics

A

Phylogenetics is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among individuals or groups of organisms

Phylogenetics uses heritable traits such as morphology, DNA sequences, and protein structure to make inferences about an organism’s evolutionary history

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11
Q

Taxonomic groups

A

Nematodes, arthropods and chordates are examples of taxonomic groups.

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12
Q

Model organisms

A

Model organisms are those that are either easily studied or have been well studied

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13
Q

Model organisms examples

A

E. coli
Arabidopsis
C elegans
Drosophila

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14
Q

Indicator species

A

Presence, absence or abundance of indicator species can give information of environmental qualities, such as presence of a pollutant

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15
Q

Population estimate formula

A

Procedure for the mark and recapture technique as a method for estimating population size using the formula
N= MC/R

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16
Q

Methods of marking animals

A

Methods of marking animals such as: banding, tagging, surgical implantation, painting and hair clipping

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17
Q

Measurements used to quantify animal behavior

A

latency, frequency and duration

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18
Q

Latency

A

Latency is the time between the stimulus occurring and the response behaviour.

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19
Q

Frequency

A

Frequency is the number of times a behaviour occurs within the observation period.

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20
Q

Duration

A

Duration is the length of time each behaviour occurs during the observation period.

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21
Q

Ethogram

A

An ethogram lists species-specific behaviours to be observed and recorded in the study. Recording the duration of each of the behaviours in the ethogram, together with the total time of observation, allows the proportion of time spent on each behaviour to be calculated in the time budget.

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22
Q

Anthropomorphism

A

When human characteristics and feelings are implied against animals

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23
Q

Evolution

A

Evolution is the change over time in the proportion of individuals in a population differing in one or more inherited traits

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24
Q

Non random evolution

A

Natural and sexual selection

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25
Q

Random evolution

A

Genetic drift

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26
Q

Effects that mutations can have

A

Harmful, neutral or beneficial

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27
Q

Sexual Selection

A

Sexual selection is the non-random process involving the selection of alleles that increase the individual’s chances of mating and producing offspring
Sexual selection may lead to sexual dimorphism

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28
Q

Male-male rivalry

A

large size or weaponry increases access to females through conflict.

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29
Q

Female Choice

A

Female choice involves females assessing the fitness of males.

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30
Q

Genetic Drift

A

Genetic drift occurs when chance events cause unpredictable fluctuations in allele frequencies from one generation to the next
Genetic drift is more important in small populations, as alleles are more likely to be lost from the gene pool

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31
Q

Bottlenecks

A

Population bottlenecks occur when a population size is reduced for at least one generation.

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32
Q

Founder effect

A

Founder effects occur through the isolation of a few members of a population from a larger population. The gene pool of the new population is not representative of that in the original gene pool.

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33
Q

Selection pressures

A

Selection pressures are the environmental factors that influence which individuals in a population pass on their alleles.

They can be biotic: competition, predation, disease, parasitism; or abiotic: changes in temperature, light, humidity, pH, salinity

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34
Q

Hardy Weinberg Principle

A

The Hardy-Weinberg (HW) principle states that, in the absence of evolutionary influences, allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant over the generations

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35
Q

Conditions for maintaining the Hardy Weinberg principle

A

The conditions for maintaining the HW equilibrium are: no natural selection, random mating, no mutation, large population size and no gene flow

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36
Q

Hardy Weinberg principle formula

A

p2 +2pq+q2 =1

p = frequency of dominant allele
q = frequency of recessive allele
p2 = frequency of homozygous dominant genotype
2pq = frequency of heterozygous genotype q2 = frequency of homozygous recessive genotype

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37
Q

Fitness

A

Fitness is an indication of an individual’s ability to be successful at surviving and reproducing

refers to the contribution made to the gene pool of the next generation by individual genotypes

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38
Q

Absolute fitness

A

Absolute fitness is the ratio between the frequency of individuals of a particular genotype after selection, to those before selection

frequency of a particular genotype after selection

frequency of a particular genotype before selection

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39
Q

Absolute fitness number results

A

If the absolute fitness is 1, then the frequency of that genotype is stable. A value greater than 1 conveys an increase in the genotype and a value less than 1 conveys a decrease.

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40
Q

Relative Fitness

A

Relative fitness is the ratio of the number of surviving offspring per individual of a particular genotype to the number of surviving offspring per individual of the most successful genotype

number of surviving offspring per individual of a particular genotype

number of surviving offspring per individual of the most successful genotype

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41
Q

Co evolution

A

Co-evolution is the process by which two or more species evolve in response to selection pressures imposed by each other

42
Q

Symbiosis

A

Symbiosis: co-evolved intimate relationships between members of two different species.

43
Q

Symbiotic interaction

A

Mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism are types of symbiotic interactions

44
Q

Mutualism

A

both organisms in the interaction are interdependent on each other for resources or other services. As both organisms gain from the relationship, the interaction is (+/+).

45
Q

Commensalism

A

only one of the organisms benefits (+/0)

46
Q

Parasitism

A

The parasite benefits in terms of energy or nutrients and the host is harmed as the result of the loss of these resources (+/-).

47
Q

Red queen hypothesis

A

The Red Queen hypothesis states that, in a co-evolutionary relationship, change in the traits of one species can act as a selection pressure on the other species

This means that species in these relationships must adapt to avoid extinction

The Red Queen hypothesis to explain the persistence of sexual reproduction
Co-evolutionary interactions between parasites and hosts may select for sexually reproducing hosts
If hosts reproduce sexually, the genetic variability in their offspring reduces the chances that all will be susceptible to infection by parasites
Asexual reproduction can be a successful reproductive strategy as whole genomes are passed on from parent to offspring
Maintaining the genome of the parent is an advantage particularly in very narrow, stable niches or when re-colonising disturbed habitats

48
Q

Costs of sexual reproduction

A

Costs of sexual reproduction: males unable to produce offspring; only half of each parent’s genome passed onto offspring, disrupting successful parental genomes

49
Q

Parthenogenesis

A

Parthenogenesis is reproduction from a female gamete without fertilisation.

Offspring can be reproduced more often and in larger numbers with asexual reproduction
Parthenogenesis is more common in cooler climates, which are disadvantageous to parasites, or regions of low parasite density or diversity

50
Q

What organisms use horizontal gene transfer

A

plasmids of bacteria and yeasts (prokaryotes)

51
Q

Meiosis

A

Meiosis is the division of the nucleus that results in the formation of haploid gametes from a diploid gametocyte

52
Q

Homologous chromosomes

A

Homologous chromosomes are chromosomes of the same size, same centromere position and with the same sequence of genes at the same loci.

53
Q

Meiosis 1

A

The chromosomes, which have replicated prior to meiosis I, each consist of two genetically identical chromatids attached at the centromere

The chromosomes condense and the homologous chromosomes pair up

Chiasmata form at points of contact between the non-sister chromatids of a homologous pair and sections of DNA are exchanged

This crossing over of DNA is random and produces genetically different recombinant chromosomes

Spindle fibres attach to the homologous pairs and line them up at the equator of the spindle

The orientation of the pairs of homologous chromosomes at the equator is random
The chromosomes of each homologous pair are separated and move towards opposite poles

Cytokinesis occurs and two daughter cells form

54
Q

Meiosis 2

A

Each of the two cells produced in meiosis I undergoes a further division during which the sister chromatids of each chromosome are separated
A total of 4 haploid cells are produced

55
Q

Parental investment

A

Greater investment by females

Parental investment is costly but increases the probability of production and survival of young

56
Q

R-selected species

A

smaller; have a shorter generation time;

mature more rapidly;
reproduce earlier in their lifetime, often only once;
produce a larger number of smaller offspring, each of which receives only a smaller energy input;
limited parental care;
most offspring will not reach adulthood.

57
Q

K selected species

A

larger and live longer;
mature more slowly;
can reproduce many times in their lifetime;

produce relatively few, larger offspring;
high level of parental care;
many offspring have a high probability of surviving to adulthood.

58
Q

External fertilization costs and benefits

A

benefits: very large numbers of offspring
can be produced

costs: many gametes predated or not fertilised; no or limited parental care; few offspring survive

59
Q

Costs and benefits of internal fertilization

A

benefits: increased chance of successful
fertilisation;
fewer eggs needed;
offspring can be retained internally for protection and/or development;
higher offspring survival rate

costs: a mate must be located, which requires energy expenditure;
requires direct transfer of gametes from one partner to another

60
Q

Monogamy

A

Monogamy: the mating of a pair of animals to the exclusion of all others.

61
Q

Polygamy

A

Polygamy: individuals of one sex have more than one mate.

62
Q

Polygyny

A

Polygyny: one male mates exclusively with a group of females.

63
Q

Polyandry

A

Polyandry: one female mates with a number of males in the same breeding season.

64
Q

Conspicuous

A

More obvious, males are usually more conspicuous as they have colourful markings etc.

65
Q

Honest signals

A

Honest signals can indicate favourable alleles that increase the chances of survival of offspring (fitness) or a low parasite burden suggesting a healthy individual.

66
Q

Lekking

A

Some bird species exhibit lekking behaviour. Dominant males occupy the centre of the lek, with subordinates and juveniles at the fringes as ‘satellite’ males. During the display, female choice occurs.

67
Q

Male rivalry

A

Males will fight for dominance and access to females, often using elaborate ‘weapons’ such as antlers, tusks, horns.

68
Q

Niche

A

An ecological niche is a multi-dimensional summary of tolerances and requirements of a species A species has a fundamental niche that it occupies in the absence of any interspecific competition

A realised niche is occupied in response to interspecific competition

As a result of interspecific competition, competitive exclusion can occur, where the niches of two species are so similar that one declines to local extinction

Where the realised niches are sufficiently different, potential competitors can co-exist by resource partitioning

69
Q

Ectoparasite

A

Lives on the surface of its host

70
Q

Endoparasite

A

Lives Within the tissues of its host

71
Q

Malaria caused by plasmodium

A

An infected mosquito, acting as a vector, bites a human. Plasmodium enters the human bloodstream. Asexual reproduction occurs in the liver and then in the red blood cells. When the red blood cells burst gametocytes are released into the bloodstream. Another mosquito bites an infected human and the gametocytes enter the mosquito, maturing into male and female gametes, allowing sexual reproduction to now occur. The mosquito can then infect another human host.

72
Q

Schistosomes

A

Schistosomes reproduce sexually in the human intestine. The fertilised eggs pass out via faeces into water where they develop into larvae. The larvae then infect water snails, where asexual reproduction occurs. This produces another type of motile larvae, which escape the snail and penetrate the skin of a human, entering the bloodstream.

73
Q

Virus

A

Viruses are parasites that can only replicate inside a host cell

Viruses contain genetic material in the form of DNA or RNA, packaged in a protective protein coat

74
Q

Viral life cycle stages

A

Viral life cycle stages: infection of host cell with genetic material, host cell enzymes replicate viral genome, transcription of viral genes and translation of viral proteins, assembly and release of new viral particles

RNA retroviruses use the enzyme reverse transcriptase to form DNA, which is then inserted into the genome of the host cell
Viral genes can then be expressed to form new viral particles

75
Q

Transmission

A

Transmission is the spread of a parasite to a host

76
Q

Virulence

A

Virulence is the harm caused to a host species by a parasite

77
Q

How are ectoparasites transmitted

A

Ectoparasites are generally transmitted through direct contact

78
Q

Endoparasites

A

Ectoparasites are generally transmitted through direct contact

79
Q

Factors that increase transmission rates

A

Factors that increase transmission rates:

the overcrowding of hosts when they are at high density

mechanisms, such as vectors and waterborne dispersal stages, that allow the parasite to spread even if infected hosts are incapacitated

80
Q

Host behavior exploitation

A

Alteration of host foraging, movement, sexual behaviour, habitat choice or anti-predator behaviour.

81
Q

Non specific defenses

A

Physical barriers, chemical secretions, inflammatory response, phagocytes, and natural killer cells destroying cells infected

82
Q

Specific non specific defenses

A

Epithelial tissue blocks the entry of parasites; hydrolytic enzymes in mucus, saliva and tears destroy bacterial cell walls; low pH environments of the secretions of stomach, vagina and sweat glands denatures cellular proteins of pathogens

83
Q

Signal molecules

A

This results in enhanced blood flow to the site, bringing antimicrobial proteins and phagocytes.

84
Q

Natural killer cells

A

Natural killer cells can identify and attach to cells infected with viruses, releasing chemicals that lead to cell death by inducing apoptosis.

85
Q

Specific cellular defenses

A

A range of white blood cells constantly circulate, monitoring the tissues

If tissues become damaged or invaded, cells release cytokines that increase blood flow resulting in non-specific and specific white blood cells accumulating at the site of infection or tissue damage

Mammals contain many different lymphocytes, each possessing a receptor on its surface, which can potentially recognise a parasite antigen

Binding of an antigen to a lymphocyte’s receptor selects that lymphocyte to then divide and produce a clonal population of this lymphocyte

Some selected lymphocytes will produce antibodies, others can induce apoptosis in parasite-infected cells

Antibodies possess regions where the amino acid sequence varies greatly between different antibodies

This variable region gives the antibody its specificity for binding antigen
When the antigen binds to this binding site the antigen-antibody complex formed can result in inactivation of the parasite, rendering it susceptible to a phagocyte, or can stimulate a response that results in cell lysis

Memory lymphocyte cells are also formed

86
Q

Antigenic variation

A

Antigenic variation in some parasites allows them to change between different antigens during the course of infection of a host
It may also allow re-infection of the same host with the new variant

87
Q

Viral latency

A

Some viruses escape immune surveillance by integrating their genome into host genomes, existing in an inactive state

The virus becomes active again when favourable conditions arise

88
Q

Epidemiology

A

Epidemiology is the study of the outbreak and spread of infectious disease

89
Q

Herd immunity

A

The herd immunity threshold is the density of resistant hosts in the population required to prevent an epidemic

90
Q

Challenges in creating a treatment or vaccine

A

The similarities between host and parasite metabolism makes it difficult to find drug compounds that only target the parasite
Antigenic variation has to be reflected in the design of vaccines
Some parasites are difficult to culture in the laboratory making it difficult to design vaccines

91
Q

Treatments of LEDC

A

Civil engineering projects to improve sanitation combined with co-ordinated vector control may often be the only practical control strategies
Improvements in parasite control reduce child mortality and result in population-wide improvements in child development and intelligence, as individuals have more resources for growth and development

92
Q

What determines male characteristics

A

The SRY gene on the Y chromosome

93
Q

What happens to heterogametic males (XY)

A

males lack most of the corresponding homologous alleles on the shorter (Y) chromosome

This can result in sex-linked patterns of inheritance as seen with carrier females (XBXb) and affected males (XbY)

94
Q

X chromosome inactivation

A

is a process by which most of one X chromosome is inactivated.

95
Q

What happens to one X chromosome in homogametic females

A

one of the two X chromosomes present in each cell is randomly inactivated at an early stage of development
X chromosome inactivation prevents a double dose of gene products, which could be harmful to cells

96
Q

Hemaphrodites

A

Hermaphrodites are species that have functioning male and female reproductive organs in each individual

They produce both male and female gametes and usually have a partner with which to exchange gametes

97
Q

Benefits of hermaphroditism

A

The benefit to the individual organism is that if the chance of encountering a partner is an uncommon event, there is no requirement for that partner to be of the opposite sex

98
Q

Environmental sex determination

A

Environmental sex determination in reptiles is controlled by environmental temperature of egg incubation.

99
Q

How can sex change within species

A

Sex can change within individuals of some species as a result of size, competition, or parasitic infection

In some species the sex ratio of offspring can be adjusted in response to resource availability

100
Q

How do retroviruses form DNA

A

They use an enzyme called reverse transcriptase which is then inserted into the genome of the host cell.
Viral genes can then be expressed to form new viral particles.

Advanced Higher Biology (3 decks)

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