Unit 1 vocab Flashcards
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it
examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates
evidence, and assesses conclusions.
empiricism
the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and
experimentation enable scientific knowledge.
structuralism
an early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.
introspection
the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one’s own psychological processes.
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
humanistic psychology
a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential.
cognitive psychology
the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn,
remember, think, communicate, and solve problems.
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
nature–nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and
experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.
Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature
and nurture.
natural selection
the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other traits
variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural
selection.
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental
influences on behavior.
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group
of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
positive psychology
the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and
promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and socialcultural viewpoints
behavioral psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of
learning
biological psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal)
and psychological processes.
psychodynamic psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts
influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological
disorders
social-cultural psychology
the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.
Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
SQ3R
a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve,
Review.
psychometrics
the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.
educational psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and
learning
personality psychology
the study of individuals’ characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and actin
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human
behavior in workplaces
human factors psychology
a field of psychology allied with I/O psychology that explores how people and
machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made
safe and easy to use
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related
to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by
physicians who are licensed to provide medical (for example, drug) treatments
as well as psychological therapy
community psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social
environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have
foreseen it.
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations
and predicts behaviors or events
hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a
research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined
as what an intelligence test measures
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in
different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced
case study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in
the hope of revealing universal principles.
naturalistic observation
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally
occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.
survey
a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of
a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of
the group
sampling bias
a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.
population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal
chance of inclusion
correlation
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how
well either factor predicts the other
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things
illusory correlation
perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual
relationship.
regression toward the mean
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress)
toward the average.
experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors
(independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental
process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the
experimenter aims to control other relevant factors
experimental group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of
the independent variable.
control group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the
experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the
treatment
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus
minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the
research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have
received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior
caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the
recipient assumes is an active agent.
independent variable
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is
being studied
confounding variable
a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results
dependent variable
in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change
when the independent variable is manipulated
validity
the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is
supposed to
informed consent
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them
to choose whether they wish to participate.
debriefing
the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.
descriptive statistics
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes
measures of central tendency and measures of variation
histogram
a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.
mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below
it.
skewed distribution
a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.
normal curve
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes
inferential statistics
numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
