Unit 1 Study Guide Flashcards
How does science rank order the sources of knowledge?
- Observation
- Logic
- Intuition
- Authority
What is the most important source of knowledge for science?
Observation
What are the four assumptions of science?
Determinism, Empiricism, Testability/Falsifiability, Parsimony
States that everything has a cause
Determinism
States the importance of observation
Empiricism
States that a theory must be testable
Testability/Falsifiability
A theory must be simple
Parsimony
What are the different steps of the scientific process?
- Identify a problem
- Gather information
- Formulate a hypothesis
- Design an experiment
- Record and organize data
- Analyze data
- Draw conclusions
The __________ of a research paper consists of identification of the problem, the information gathered, and the hypothesis.
Introduction
The _____________ of a research paper consists of the design of the experiment, how the data was recorded and organized, and the analysis of the data.
Method and Results
The _____________ of a research paper consists of the conclusions.
Discussion
People tend to highlight evidence that supports their beliefs and ignores alternatives.
Confirmation bias (Positive-test bias)
What exercises can demonstrate confirmation bias?
Wason Card Task
Definition of a theoretical construct or concept stated in concrete/observable terms
operational definition
What were the variables of Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment?
IV: adult interaction with doll
DV: children’s aggressive behavior
Subject: Child’s age & gender
What was the hypothesis of Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment?
Exposure to aggression increases aggressive behavior
The ___________ variable is controlled by the researcher.
independent
The ______________ variable is the response or behavior of the individual.
dependent
The ___________ variables are the individual differences of subjects.
subject
A __________ variable scale uses qualitatively distinct categories.
nominal
What is an example of a nominal scale?
hair color
A __________ variable scale has the same spaces between variables, but no true zero.
interval
What is an example of an interval scale?
temperature
A __________ scale has categories with quantitative meaning, but no consistent spacing.
ordinal
What is an example of an ordinal scale?
education levels
A ___________ variable scale is an interval scale with a true zero point.
ratio
What is an example of a ratio scale?
age
What are the 3 question you need to ask to determine which scale a variable is on?
- Can you rank order the levels of the variable?
- Are the levels equidistant?
- Is there a true zero?
A ____________ design uses different participants for each level of IV
between-subjects
A _____________ design uses the same participants for both levels of the IV
within-subjects
What are the disadvantages of the within-subjects design?
Each participant spends more time in the study, possible order effects
What are the disadvantages of the between-subject design?
requires more participants, greater subject variability, possible selection bias
When certain groups in the population are systematically excluded or overrepresented.
selection bias
How can selection bias be prevented?
random assignment or matching participants
Change in participants’ performance caused by the order in which conditions or treatments are presented
order effects
How can order effects be prevented?
counterbalancing
Varrying the order of conditions across participants to balance the effects of order
counterbalancing
the influence that one condition in a study has on the response to subsequent conditions
carryover effects
When should you use within-subject design?
When studying relations between variables
When should you use between-subjects design?
When the experimental condition makes “permanent change” to participants
Differences in the scores on the DV
variance
___________ variance is differences in the DV that are CAUSED by the IV
primary
____________ variance is differences in the DV that are caused by anything else
secondary
A variable that is systematically related to both the IV and the DV and impairs ability to establish causal explanation between variables of interest
Confound
What are some possible sources of confounds?
Subject differences, environmental differences, IV differences, measurement differences
The study of change over time
developmental research
Does age cause change?
NO
A ____________ design observes the same individuals as they develop
longitudinal
What is an advantage of a longitudinal study?
limit selection bias & secondary variance
What is a disadvantage of a longitudinal study?
selective drop-out
How are longitudinal studies and within-subjects design similar?
Both involve repeated measures on the same participants over time
A ____________ study studies difference age groups at the same time
Cross-sectional
What are some advantages of a cross-sectional study?
faster, easier
What are some disadvantages of a cross-sectional study?
selection bias, confounds with cohort effects
How are cross-sectional studies and between-subjects design similar?
Both involve comparing different age groups of participants at a single point in time
The NICHD Early Child Care and Youth Development Study examined how different types of ___________ and early life experiences influence children’s ____________ from infancy through adolescence.
child care, development
The NICHD Early Child Care and Youth Development Study used a ______________ developmental design.
longitudinal
Losing participants during the study
selective dropout (attrition)
The change in a participant’s behavior when they are aware that they are being observed or studied (Hawthorne effects)
participant reactivity
A generation of people who grew up at the same time
cohort
A ___________ design studies people who are the same age, at different points in “history”
time-lag
What is the main advantage of a time-lag design?
resolves age and time confound from longitudinal study and resolves cohort effects from cross-sectional study
Selection of participants from a population
sample
The defined group of individuals from which a sample is drawn?
Population
What are the 3 main sampling methods?
- Simple Random
- Stratified Random
- Convenience
__________ sampling occurs when all individuals in a population have an equal probability of being sampled
simple-random
__________ sampling occurs when the population is divided into groups and random samples are taken from each group
stratified random
When individuals who choose not to participate in a study differ significantly from those who do respond
non-response bias
A technique used in research to ensure that smaller or underrepresented groups in a population are adequately represented in the sample
oversampling
Convenience sampling that does not specify the probability that any member of the population will be in the sample
nonprobability sampling
What are the 3 concerns of reliability?
- Does the test produce the same results every time?
- Are different questions on the same test measuring the same thing?
- Are different researchers measuring the same thing?
What is the relationship between reliability and validity?
Reliability is a NECESSARY but not SUFFICIENT condition for validity
What are the 3 concerns of validity?
- Is there really a relation between the IV and DV?
- Are the findings generalizable?
- Are we measuring what we intended to measure?
Refers to the extent to which a study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship between the IV and DV
internal validity
Refers to how well the results of a study can be generalized to other settings, populations, and times.
external validity
Focuses on how well the study results generalize in real-world setting
ecological validity
refers to the degree to which a test, measurement, or study truly measures the concept or construct it is intended to measure
construct validity
Set of ethical principles established after World War II in response to the inhumane and unethical medical experiments conducted by Nazi doctors.
Nuremburg code
What is one of the key principles of the Nuremberg Code?
voluntary informed consent
A set of ethical guidelines and principles for conducting medical research involving human participants
Declaration of Helsinki
Unethical clinical research study conducted by the U.S. Public Health Service in Tuskegee, Alabama that aimed to observe the natural progression of untreated Syphilis in African American men
Tuskegee Syphilis study
A foundational document in the ethics of research involving human participants created in response to the Tuskegee Syphilis study
Belmont Report
A committee established by an institution to oversee and review research involving human participants
IRB
What are the 3 basic principles of ethics?
- Respect for persons
- Beneficence
- Justice
What is respect for persons?
individuals should be treated as autonomous agents
What is beneficence?
Making an effort to security the well-being of participants not harming them and maximizing benefit and minimizing harm
What is the principle of justice?
Fair distribution of benefits and burdens of research
A _____________ is capable of deliberation about personal goals
autonomous agent
Not forced, coerced, or induced to participate, continue, or complete study; participants are told about the purpose of the study, risks, and benefits or participation, and their rights to refuse or terminate participation
voluntary informed consent
A document used to inform participants about the nature of a research study and to obtain their voluntary permission to participate in the study
consent form
What is an example of being forced to participate in research?
threat of penalties or punishment
What is an example of being coerced to participate in research?
offering excessive incentives
What is an example of being induced to participate in research?
false promises
Specifies the exact procedures or criteria used to measure a variable
operational defintion
A statement that there is no effect, relationship, or difference between variables in a study
null hypothesis
An alternative explanation that competes with the null hypothesis being tested in a study
rival hypothesis
