unit 1 - research methods Flashcards
Qualitative data-
refer to the description of characteristics of what is being studied eg. emotions
Quantitive data-
refers to measurements, numerical information about the variables. It is more accurate and precise
Objective data-
are measured according to an identifiable external criterion. Every one would get the same results eg. Get the class to measure the desk
Subjective data-
is date based on opinions and there is no external yardstick by which they are measured eg how do you feel about maths
Independent variable-
the variable that is deliberately changed
Dependant variable-
is the thing that is measured ( it is dependant on the IV)
Operationalised-
involves defining exactly what the variable is and shown how it is measured eg students who have 8 carrots a day will have better eyesight (be able to see more letters on the eye chart)
Extraneous variable-
are variables besides the IV that could change the DV
Confounding variable-
variables other the the IV that has an unwanted systematic effect on the DV
The steps of the Scientific method-
Identify the area of research and form the aim
form a hypothesis
Design a research method to test the hypothesis
Collect the data
analyse the data
Interpret the data and draw conclusions
Report the findings
How to write a hypothesis-
a hypothesis is a testable prediction about the results of the study. It must include the population, IV, DV and the prediction
Population-
it is the larger group of research interests from with the sample has been drawn
Sample-
a group of participants selected from the population
Sampling-
is the process in which we select our participants
Convenience sampling-
advantages
disadvantages
when we select participants based on easy accessibility or availability eg use everyone in the library
+ quick and easy to obtain a sample
- very unlikely to get a representative sample
Random sample-
advantages
disadvantages
is when everyone in the population has an equal chance at being selected eg draw out of a hat
+ if the sample is large enough then it provides an unbiased sample of the population
- difficult and time- consuming with large population
Stratified sample-
advantages
disadvantages
involves dividing the population into groups based on specific categories and then selecting a sample from each strata in the same proportion that they occur in the population
+ likely to get a representative sample ( so generalised can be made)
- very time consuming and costly
Random allocation-
a procedure that ensures that all participants have an equal chance of being selected for the experimental and control group
Experimental group-
group that is exposed to the IV
Control group-
group that is not being exposed to the IV
What are the 3 research designs?
repeated measures
Matched participants
Independent group experimental designs
Repeated measures-
advantages
disadvantages
is when the same group of participants are exposed to both the experimental and control group
+ individual differences highly controlled
+ Fewer participants are required
- oder effect can occur
- Participants are more likely to drop out because they have to do both experiments
Matched participants-
advantages
disadvantages
is placing equivalent pairs of participants into the control and experimental group
+ minimises participant differences
+ Eliminates order effect
- pre-testing is time consuming and expensive
- If one person drops out then so does there pair
Independent group experimental-
advantages
disadvantages
is when the participants are only exposed to the experimental or control group
+ time efficient and easy to use
+ Less chance of drop outs
- participants differences not controlled for
- More participants needed than repeated measures
Cross sectional study-
advantages
disadvantages
participants of different ages are investigated at one particular point in time
+ data is collected only one so it is less expensive and more time efficient
+ Short term commitment so less drop outs
- cant establish cause and effect relationship
- Factors other then age may play a part in results eg family eniomentme
Placebo effect-
refers to the participants behaviour being influenced by their expectations of how they should behave caused by the beliefs that they have received some sort of treatment.to minimise this use a single blind procedure
Experimental effect-
refers to changes in the experimenters behaviour that are caused by the unintentional influence of an experimenter, rather then the effect of the DV. To reduce this use the double blind procedure
What are the ethical considerations?
confidentiality Voluntary participation Informed consent Withdrawal rights Deception Debriefing
what is the structure of research reports?
title abstract ( summery) introduction ( background info, past studies, definitions pf theories , aim, hypothesis, iv and dv) method ( participants, materials, procedure) results discusion references appendicies
what is the experimental method?
is a scientific research method that uses participants in a formal trial to confirm or reject the hypothesis
the experimental hypothesis
is a broad and general prediction about whether the iv will affect the dv
e.g.. the amount of sleep someone gets will likely affect their level of irritability
the research hypothesis ( operational)
explains how the iv will be manipulated and how its effect will be measured on the dv.
e.g.. adults who sleep for fewer then 6 hours a night will score higher ( 8+) on koerners irritability scale then adults who sleep 8+hours
what is a generalisations
A generalisations is a decision or judgement about whether the results obtained from the sample are representative of the relevant population
what is a conclusion
A conclusion is a decision or judgement about the meaningfulness of the results of the study
variables
- neutral
- controlled
- confounding
Neutral- no effect on the study
Controlled- were predicted and eliminated
Confounding- an uncontrolled variable that has had an unwanted effect on the DV and might be confused with the effect of the IV
Potential confounding variables: standardisation:
standardisation: establishing standard for administering a test and interpreting scores. eg having the same procedure so that all tests are done in the same conditions
Potential confounding variables:Participants variable
Participants variable: are individual differences in the personal characteristics of the participants which can effect the results if not controlled
Potential confounding variables:Order effect
Order effect: occurs when there is prior knowledge of a task or situation which influences a participants performance ( pos or neg ) and therefore may influence the results of the experiment eg boredom or improved performance
Potential confounding variables: Experimenter effect:
Experimenter effect: is changes in participants behaviour that are caused by the unintended influence of the experiment rather then the IV eg. How the experimenter treats the participant
Potential confounding variables: Self fulfilling prophecy:
how is this controlled
is a prediction that promotes people to act in a way which will make the predictions come true — a double blind procedure can be used to counteract the experimenter effect. This involves neither the experimenter or the participants knowing which experimental conditions that they have been allocated to. Someone else will control the IV and interact with the participants
Potential confounding variables:
how do you control
Placebo effect: a placebo is a fake treatment that has no active effect such as fake pill. The placebo effect refers to changes in behaviour caused by the participants beliefs that they have been exposed to a treatment that will effect them in someway. Placebos work by altering peoples expectations of their mental and physical reaction eg. Painkillers — a single blind procedure is often used to control the placebo effect. it is an experimental procedure where participants do not know which experimental conditions they have been exposed to
what are 3 sampling procedures
- convenience
- random
- stratified
participants rights
Participants right are the individual rights of all participants that must be respected by the researcher.
Protection and security of participants rights:
researchers must respect participants interests and needs and endeavour to ensure their safety, welfare and wellbeing
Voluntary participation:
participants should be involved by their own will or choice and not be pressured
Confidentiality:
participants right to privacy in terms of access, storage and disposal of information related to a research study in which they participate
Withdrawal rights:
participants the right to withdraw from the study (or after the study ) without negative consequences
Access to results: participants have the right to any documents published by the researcher
Informs consent:
where a participant gives their written consent to participate after being full informed of the nature and purpose of the experiment ( where appropriate), any risks and their rights. U18 must be signed by a guardian
Deception:
when info about the true purpose of the study is not given to participants before a study begins. This is often done when revelling information would result in participants acting differently . It is acceptable if it wont cause Any distress or trauma and the participants must be debreifed after
Debriefing;
occurs after the study has been completed. They are informed of the results/conclusions, any misconceptions should be clarified, services for distress are made available
Reliability
refer to the extent to which the results from a study are consistent, dependable and stable. If you did the study again in identical conditions you should get the same results and they should be consistent.
Validity
refers to the extent to which procedures used for a research study measure what they are suppose to measure. In most cases, this means that the measure has to work and not be faulty
Statistics- analysing and interpreting data
descriptive statistics are statistics used to describe, summaries, organise and analyse data. They don’t determine whether or not the results support the reach hypothesis
Inferential statistics are used to interpret results so researches can decide what the results mean. It allows researches to determine significance of results and make conclusions and whether the results support the hypothesis and possible generalisations
Measure of variability
We also need to know whether scores are grouped closely together or scattered widely. Measures of variability provide a single number that tell us the degree to which scores in a distribution are spread out or clustered together
Do this by finding the range
probability
Probability refers to the likelihood of an event occurring
Statistical significance
is number obtained from inferential statistics that provides an estimate of how often experimental results could have occurred by chance alone, expressed by the P-value. This probability gives the odds that an observed difference is due to chance alone.
P< 0.05
= statistically significant ( results likely due to the IV)
p> 0.05 =
not statistically significant ( likely due to chance)
Studies that limit generalisations:
small sample, imbalanced gender, participants difference left uncontrolled and ethical breach ect.
ethics:
are moral principles and codes of behaviour when psychologists research is done. It must be done in a professional way and be approved by an ethics committee to prevent harm
Experimenters role
It is the experimenters role to protect participants physically and psychologically welfare ( this is more important then the study)
all professionals must agree to the …
APS’s code of ethics
The NHMF act of 1992 ethical values are
> research merit: researches can explain the benefits of the research
integrity: researches must behave in a professional manner
respect: researches are aware of welfare and rights ect.
beneficence: benefits to society shown to outweigh any risk or harm to participants
justice: must be fair in recruitment of each individual leaving no individual exploited
Participants rights
if the results can be generalised then …
if the results can be generalised, it can be assumed that results would be similar if repeated on different sample of the same population
Data collection technique case study
- limitation
A case study is an in depth, detailed study of all aspects of a single, group or event, usually undertaken to gain insight into a particular psychological phenomenon. They are a non-experimental form of data collection
one limitation of the case study is that they are uncontrolled, they lack formal controls groups which limits conclusions that can be drawn from them.
Case studies provide a useful insight into human behaviour but their results cant be generalised
Data collection technique
Observational study
2 limitations
Observational study Is a method of data collection that involves watching and recording the behaviour of other people or animals within a Specific environment and drawing conclusions based on recorded observation. To do this the behaviour has to be overt e.g..building a sandcastle not how they are feeling
one limitation is the observer effect which is changes in the participants behaviour because they are aware that they are being observed
Another limitation is observer bias. This is when the observer see what they expected to see. To control this have more then 1 observer
Data collection technique Self reports
Is a data collection technique in which individuals are asked to freely express their attitudes by answering questions. They are a form of subjective data because info given cannot be applied to others. It can be qualitative eg rating scale or qualitative e.g.. open ended question.
limitations are that open ended questions can produce a lot of data which is tie consuming. Ratings can restrict response. Some people may misunderstand the questions
- questionare
interview
Questionnaires
are written set of standardised questions that can be administered face to face, mail, phone ect. It is usually a survey. A limitation is honestly and misunderstanding questions. An advantage is it is inexpensive, can be anonymous and it can be administered to a large groups and responses are limited to standard questions
Interviews
are a form of qualitative data collection where individuals are asked to comment on their attitude towards an issue. A limitation is that there is no anonymity so dishonesty may occur. It is not practical for a large sample. An advantage is that participants don’t need to be able to read or write. You can clarify the meaning of questions
