UNIT 1 EXAM TERMS Flashcards
psychology
the scientific study of brain functions, mental processes, and
behavior
variables
factors that have a range of values
measurements
how we describe a variables quantity
purpose
reflects both the observation that motivated the research, and the specific question that youre investigating.
independent variable (x)
the variable that is controlled/changed
dependent variable (y)
the variable that is measured
ethics in psych
refer to protections agains psychological harm as well as physical
IRB
institutional review board (decides whats ethical)
IRB ethical principals
- respect for people. 2. beneficence (do no harm). 3. justice
operationalization
defining variables in ways that allow them to be measured
implications
refer to the broader meanings, consequences, and applications that can be drawn from a study.
internal validity
examines whether a study can answer a question w/o bias from other variables
external validity
examines whether the study findings can be generalized to other contexts
descriptive methods
research methods designed for making careful, systematic observations
descriptive case study
in-depth observation of one person or small number of people
sensation
the process of detecting stimuli from the environment or stimuli arising from the body
transduction
the process of translating sensory info into neural activity
perception
the process of interpreting sensory info
sensory adaptation
reduced neural response to unchanging stimulus (ignoring background noise)
selective attention
ability to focus on a subset of the available info and ignore the rest
bottom-up processing
perception based on building simple input into more complex perceptions (extra processing devoted to a stimulus because it quickly attracts attention)
top down processing
a perceptual process in which memory and other cognitive process are required for interpreting sensory info. (extra processing devoted to a stimulus bc we have learned its important)
psychophysics
the study of the relationship between the physical qualities of stimuli and the subjective responses the produce
absolute threshold
the smallest amount of stimulus that can be detected
difference threshold
the smallest detectable difference between 2 stimuli
signal detection theory (SDT)
a method for determining an individual’s threshold for making different types of decisions
SDT outcome: Hit
detecting a stimulus when a stimulus is present (correct)
SDT outcome: Miss
failing to detect a stimulus when a stimulus is present (incorrect)
SDT outcome: False alarm
believing a stimulus exists when stimulus is absent (incorrect)
SDT outcome: correct rejection
believing there is no stimulus when stimulus is absent (correct)
Cornea
the clear surface at the front of the eye that begins the process of directing light to the retina
iris
brightly colored circular muscle around the pupil
pupil
opening formed by the iris where light enters the eye
lens
the clear structure behind the pupil that bends light towards the retina
retina
layers of visual processing cells in the back of the eye
fovea
and area of the retina that is specialized for highly detailed vision
optic nerve
where info leaves the eye and connects to the brain
photoreceptors
specialized neurons that react to light
rods
detect light and dark (120 million in each eye)
cones
detect color (6mil in each eye)
retinal neurons
pass info from photoreceptors to the optic nerve which leads to the brain
horizontal cells
integrate and modulate output of rods and cones; contribute to contrast perception and control adaptation to bright and dark conditions
bipolar cells
receive input from horizontal cells and photoreceptors, causing excitation and inhibition
amacrine cells
decode signal from bipolar cells, mediate processing of visual signal to ganglion cells
ganglion cells
relay retinal information to the visual processing centers in the brain via the optic nerve; the only neurons in the retina that fire action potentials
neurotransmission
the transfer of info between two neurons
synapse
the point of communication between 2 neurons
neurotransmitter
a chemical messenger that communicates across a synapes; affect the electrical charge of the postsynaptic neuron
glutamate
the primary neurotransmitter involved in communication between neurons in the retina
resting poptential
neurons naturally carry a charge of about -70 millivolts
graded potential
change in membrane potential caused by a neurotransmitter binding to a ligand-gated channel, allowing ions to enter or exit the cell
IPSP
inhibitory postsynaptic potential, reduced membrane potential
EPSP
excitatory postsynaptic potential, increased membrane potential
action potential
neural firing, a sudden, massive rise and subsequent fall of membrane potential; occurs when membrane potential exceeds a threshold of -55 mv
spike rate
number of action potentials per unit of time
optic chasm
directs all info from left eye to right brain and right eye to left brain
optic tracts
carry info between the optic chasm to the thalamus
axons
what optic nerves/tracts are made of. carry messages via patterns of neural firing that code for stuff
light spectrum
measures of amplitude, frequency
depth perception
monocular/binocular cues
auditory perception
pitch, loudness, localization, grouping
McGurk effect in auditory perception
an auditory-visual illusion that illustrates how perceivers merge information for speech sounds across the senses.
vestibular system
provides balance and stuff for the body. who fucking knows
pain and gate theory
a mechanism, in the spinal cord, in which pain signals can be sent up to the brain to be processed to accentuate the possible perceived pain, or attenuate it at the spinal cord itself
nervous system
command center of the body; responsible for controlling your movements, body processes, thoughts, and automatic responses to the world
Central Nervous system (CNS)
consists of the brain and spinal cord; central source of any message that needs to be sent anywhere else in the body
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
consists of the nerves that branch out all over the body; relays info to organs, arms, legs, fingers, toes,
somatic nervous system
relays info from the sensory organs to and from the CNS and guides voluntary movements
Autonomic nervous system
controls the activities your body does w/o thinking (ex. heart beating)
sympathetic nervous system
prepares the body for situations that require the expenditure of energy; pupils dilate, airways dilate, HR increases, stomach inhibits digestion, kidneys release adrenaline
Parasympathetic nervous system
prepares body for rest/repair. pupils constrict, airways constrict, HR slows, stomach digests
enteric nervous system
relays messages related to the gastrointestinal system
emotion
a combo of arousal/physical sensation and subjective feelings that occur spontaneously in response to the environmental stimuli
arousal
ones physiological level of alertness and intensity
Yerkes-Dodson Law
in cognitively difficult tasks (taking a test) medium arousal is best. Direct, uncomplicated tasks (sprinting) high arousal best
physical sensations
changes in the body associated w arousal. HR, respiration, sweating, pupil dialation
subjective feelings
experience of positive or negative valence
circumplex model of emotion
emotions are distributed in a space w dimensions of arousal and valence
structuralism
belief that the mind could be broken down into smaller components, such as sensations, feelings, and thoughts, and that the study of these elements could lead to a greater understanding of the human experience
gestalt psychology
belief that experience is not just the sum of our perceptions, but rather is influenced by the organization and grouping of elements into meaningful wholes or patterns
functionalism
belief that mental processes exists because they serve specific functions in helping individuals survive and fulfill their needs. (William James chief proponent)
James-Lange Theory
proposes that physical sensations lead to subjective feelings; emphasizes that the physical sensations that arise due to stimulus come BEFORE any subjective feelings about the stimulus
Facial feedback hypothesis
facial expressions can influence and regulate human emotions
Cannon-Bard theory
proposes that physical sensation and the subjective feelings of an emotion occur simultaneously and independently
limbic system
part of the brain that interprets stimuli and regulates physical sensation
Schachter-singer Two-factor theory
proposes that physical sensations cause us to appraise the environment, which contributes to our subjective feelings
universal emotions hypothesis
proposed by paul ekman, humans are born with 6 basic emotions
hypothalamus
involved in regulating/coordinating the physiological responses to emotional stimuli
amygdala
processes the emotional significance of stimuli
Thalamus
recieves input from sensory organs and projects info to the appropriate region of the cerebral cortex
hippocampus
primary function is formation of memories for facts/events
fast pathway
sensory info goes to thalamus then straight to amygdala
slow pathway
sensory info goes to thalamus, the cortex, then to amygdala
appraisals
detection and assessment of stimuli with relevance for ones personal well being
cognitive reappraisal
reinterpreting the meaning and significance of the situation in a more positive or adaptive way.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
a form of psychological treatment that presents patients w tools for changing negative thinking patters
incentives
motivation/rewards
intrinsic reward
rewards that arise internally; feeling of accomplishment when a task is complete
extrinsic reward
rewards that come externally to the task itself (grades, money,)
homeostatis
a state of internal balance or equilibrium
drive
a state of tension and arousal triggered by cues that are important for survival
drive reduction
a state of relief and reward produced by removing tension of the drive state
maslows hierarchy of needs
basic needs, psychological needs, self-fulfillment needs
catharsis
the process of releasing and thereby providing relief from
display rules
a socially learned standard that regulates the expression of an emotion
set points
posits that individuals react to the experience of major life events, but quickly adapt back to the pre-event baseline levels or subjective well-being in the following years.
hypothalamus
acts as the control center for hunger and satiety
affiliation motivation theory
belief that people desire to belong to a group or organization
learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience
neuroplasticity
the selective organizing of connections between neurons in our brains based on experience
associative learning
the formation of associations or connections among stimuli and behavior
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which associations are formed between two stimuli that occur sequentially in time
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which associations are formed between voluntary behaviors and their outcomes
contingency
stimuli repeatedly occur together, such that the presence of one stimulus reliably predicts the presence of the other
contiguity
stimuli must occur close together in time
generalization
a conditioned response to one object is exhibited in the presence of similar stimuli
extinction
presenting the conditioned stimulus by itself until it no longer elicits a response (ex. exposure therapy)
exposure therapy
treating phobias by exposing people to feared stimuli until they no longer respond
spontaneous recovery
a reappearance of a conditioned response during extinction followed by a period of rest
inhibition
condition stimulus predicts the non occurrence of an unconditioned stimulus
counterconditioning
substituting one conditioned response with another
aversion therapy
conditioning an organism to be repelled by an addictive substance
systematic desensitizaition
associations between the phobic stimulus and fear are replaced with a positive emotion
law of effect
behaviors that produce rewards are likely to be repeated (Edward Thorndike)
behaviorism
a school of thought whereby behaviors are conditioned responses to an environmental stimuli (BF skinner)
positive reinforcement
adding something good to increase the behavior
negative reinforcement
removing something adverse to increase the behavior
positive punishment
adding something aversive to decrease the behavior
negative punishment
removing something good to decrease the behavior
primary reinforcers
support our natural need for survival; food, water, safety
secondary reinforcers
gain value and ability to influence behavior from being associated with other things that are valued.
schedules of reinforcement
rules for determining how frequently or after how many behaviors an organism will receive reinforcement
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing a behavior every time the behavior occurs
partial reinforcement
reinforcing a behavior on some occasions, but not on others
fixed ratio schedule
reinforcement occurs after a certain number of behaviors (needing to sell a certain number of items to get a bonus)
fixed interval schedule
reinforcement occurs after the behavior has continued for a certain duration (getting a paycheck at the end of every week)
variable ratio schedule
reinforcement occurs after some variable number of behaviors (slot machines play out after a variable number of plays)
variable interval schedule
reinforcement occurs at variable times (social media notifications)
rewards system in the brain
function is to reinforce sets of behaviors
dopamine
neurotransmitter that produces a subjective feeling of pleasure when released in the reward system
ventral tegmental area (VTA)
structure that initiates dopamine release in response to a behavior
nucleus accumbens
integrates dopamine signaling from the VTA with prediction error; if a reward is better than expected, nucleus accumbens is involved in reinforcing the circuits involved in creating the behavior
prefrontal cortex
assesses value of rewards and exerts control over behaviors
applied behavior analysis (ABA) therapy
use of token reward system to modify behavior in autistic children
non-associative learning
changes in the magnitude of response to a single stimulus
habituation
decreased reactions to repeated stimuli
observational learning
type of learning where one organism watches the actions of another organism
instincts and reflexes
innate behaviors that occur naturally and do not involve learning
sensitization
non-associative learning process that leads to increased responsiveness to a stimulus and is considered complementary to habituation
role of surprise
to interrupt an ongoing action and reorient attention to a new, possibly significant event
shaping
a form of behavior modification based with operant conditioning
token economies
a reward system used in a behavior modification program
phoneme
the smallest component os speech sound
morpheme
the smallest component of speech that carries meaning
grammar
rules for combining morphemes into phrases and sentences
linguistic relativity theory
our opinion of the world is shaped by the semantic categories of our native language
critical period hypothesis
the ideal time during brain development for language acquisition
synaptic pruning
as the brain matures, some synaptic connections are strengthened while some are weakened/eliminated
behaviorist perspective
B.F. Skinner. language is learned through operant conditoning
nativist perspective
Noam Chomsky. the human brain is innately hardwired to learn language, regardless of the environment
Wernicke’s area
responsible for language comprehension (located in temporal lobe near primary auditory cortex)
wernicke’s aphasia
deficit in language comprehension caused by damage to wernicke’s area
broca’s area
located in the frontal lobe near motor cortex, responsible for language production
broca’s aphasia
deficit in language production caused by damage to broca’s area
cognition
internal mental processes including information processing, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving
representation; concepts
mental groupings of similar things
representational cues
ways of activating a particular concept or mental representations
analogical cues
bear physical similarity to the concepts represented (drawings)
symbolic cues
used to represent concept but dont bear any physical similarity to the object (words)
exemplar
a specific example of a category that was actually observed
prototype
a single, standard, or average representation of a cateogry
problem solving
finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal
algorithms
precise sets of rules that will reliably generate a solution to a problem
stereotype
a concept involving generalized beliefs
trial and error
explore different behaviors, receive feedback from environment
heuristics
shortcuts to problem solving, rules of thumb
recognition heuristic
higher value is placed on the more easily recognized alternative
availability heuristic
the frequency of an event’s occurrence is predicted by the ease with which the event is brought to mind
representativeness heuristic
stimuli that are more similar to a prototype are believed to be more likely
affect heuristic
choosing between alternatives based on gut reactions
speed-accuracy trade off
inverse relationship between speed an accuracy
aging effects
older adults are slower and more accurate than younger adults during perceptual decision tasks
intelligence
the ability to understand complex ideas, adapt effectively to the environment, learn from experience, engage in reasoning, and overcome obstacles
eugenics
set of beliefs purported to improve the quality of human population
general intelligence
people may vary in individual skillsets, but intelligence is best represented as a single quantity
specific intelligence
people can be intelligent in a subset of domains and not in others
fluid intelligence
the ability to think logically w/o learned knowledge
crystallized intelligence
ability to think logically using specific learned info
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
iq test used today, reliable, standardized, valid
cultural biases
presence of elements w/in a test that systematically favor or disadvantage individuals from specific cultural backgrounds
administrator bias
impacts of the person administering the test on how the student performs; women/minorities perform better w shared-identiy proctors
stereotype threat
members of a stigmatized group find themselves in a situation where negative stereotypes provide a possible framework for interpreting their behavior
functional fixedness
a type of cognitive bias that involves a tendency to see objects as only working in a particular way
emotional intelligence
the ability to manage both your own emotions and understand the emotions of people around you
