Unit 1 Exam Revision Flashcards
Pseudoscience
Systems or methods that try to explain human behaviour in non-scientific ways. They are often called false or fake sciences.
Quantitative data
Measurements (numerical information) about the variables being studied
Qualitative data
Descriptions of the characteristics of what is being studied.
Electromagnetic energy
Light energy (electromagnetic energy) is converted by the rods and cones into electrochemical nerve impulses. Energy released into space by stars. Light energy.
Electrochemical energy
Light energy (electromagnetic energy) is converted by the rods and cones into electrochemical nerve impulses.
Visual illusion
A figure structured so that perception will consistently differ from objective reality.
Maturation
A predetermined biological sequence of behaviours which occur at certain ages.
Development
Looks at how and why human beings change over the course of their life.
Perceptual development
It occurs as infants grow and explore their environment. It is the selecting, organising and interpreting of the sensations that are sent to the brain from the senses.
Attachment
A strong, close and emotional bond that develops between an infant and caregiver.
Nature vs Nurture
It considers the biological or genetic influences that determine who we are and how we behave. It questions whether a person is born ‘bad’ or are the product of their environment.
Psychosis
A mental illness where there is some loss of contact with reality.
Hallucination
False perceptions in the absence of sensory input.
Delusions
False beliefs that are strongly help despite evidence that they cannot be true.
Assimilation
According to Piaget, it the process where new experiences are combined with existing schemas.
Accommodation (cognitive development)
Piaget’s term when new situations, objects, or information are encountered and the person’s schema is either modified or a new schema is created.
Gerontology
The study of the biological, cognitive and psych-social aspects of aging.
Geriatrics
Geriatrics is the study of medical diseases of elderly people.
Accommodation (visual)
The process which the ciliary muscles of the eye change the curvature of the lens to focus an image on the retina.
Why is psychology considered a science?
Psychology is considered a science because it:
• Gathers factual information
• Forms theories to explain this factual information
• Tests the theories.
Psychologist
- Qualified therapist who can treat mental and personality problems with non-medical procedures.
- Supervised 2 years
- Can assess developmental progress, and personal and community health.
- Unable to prescribe medication
- Need to complete a four year undergraduate degree and a two-year master’s degree.
Psychiatrist
- Need to complete a six year medical degree
- Able to prescribe medication
- Qualified medical practitioner who can perform medical procedures such as ECT.
- Supervised for 5 years.
Psychological research (8 steps)
1 Identify the area of research and form a research aim.
2 Collect information
3 Identify the research question and formulate a hypothesis.
4 Design a research method to test the hypothesis.
5 Collect and analyse the data
6 Draw conclusions – accept or reject the hypothesis.
7 Report findings
8 Test the conclusion
Forensic psychologist
Work in criminal, civil and family legal areas and provide services to criminals, victims, justice personnel and police.
Health psychologist
Works within the health-care system and promote the prevention and treatment of illness.
Organisational psychologist
Generally specialise in the areas of employment, human resource management, training and development, market research and advertising.
Sport psychologist
Assist individuals and teams involved in professional and amateur sports to maximise their performance and achieve their goals.
Clinical neurpsychologist
Assess, monitor and manage individuals with brain impairments. Provide detailed assessments and conduct thorough non-drug-based tests.
clinical psychologist
Assess, diagnose and treat psychological problems and mental illness.
Counselling psychologist
Assist individuals, couples, families and groups with relationships, well-being, work and health management.
Community psychologist
Work with community members and government organisations to address individual, social, political and environmental factors.
Educational and development psychologist
Are concerned with how people develop and learn through their lives.
Biological perspective
explained mental processes and behaviour in terms of physical structures and biochemical processes with a shift to genetic (nature) rather than environmental influences (nurture).
Sociocultural perspective
in psychology understands the importance of social and cultural differences, and examines how a person’s beliefs, values and traditions influence his or her thoughts, feelings and behaviours.
Cognitive perspective
was greatly influenced by the development of information technology, employing the structure of the computer as a metaphor for the workings of the mind.
Why are pseudosciences so popular?
Pseudoscience’s are so popular because they tell people what they want to hear. They do this by making them vague and general so that it could apply to anyone.
Palmistry
The reading of the lines and shape of a person’s hand as a guide to his or her personality and destiny.
Phrenology
The shape and the lumps and bumps on a person’s head are used to determine personality and to explain behaviours.
Numerology
A system of predicting the personality and future destiny of a person based on patterns of numbers instead of words; often, each letter of the alphabet is represented by a number.
Random sample
Random sample is when every member of the population has an equal chance of selection.
- List of population
- Random number generator
Advantages: It gives a representative sample – participants variables spread in the same portion as in a population.
Random allocation
It means that all participants who have been selected for an experiment must have an equal chance of being in the experimental group or the control group.
Role of the experimenter
The researcher must always act in a professional manner, making sure that the best interests of the participants, and of society in general are met.
Participant’s rights
Researchers must always maintain respect for the participants.
Confidentiality
Participants must not be identified in any way in terms of test results, their involvement in the study or any other confidential data.
Voluntary participation
Participants have the right to refuse to take part in a study.
Withdrawal rights
Participants have the right to leave a study at any stage, regardless of the possible effects on the result.
Informed consent
Participants must be given information about a study before they agree to take part.
Deception in research
This is only permitted if the results would be confounded if the participants had much information before taking part in the study. The participants must not suffer any distress.
Debreifing
occurs after the completion of the study and participants are told the results and conclusions of the study.
Reception
Light enters the eye through the cornea, a tough transparent tissue covering the front of the eye.
Transduction
The electromagnetic energy that we know as light energy is converted by the rods and cones into electrochemical nerve impulses.
Transmission
the next task for the rods and cones is to send the nerve impulses along the optic nerve to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobes.
Selection
We can’t possibly pay attention to all the millions of stimuli that enter the eye at the same time, so we pick out the ones that are important to us and pay attention to those.
Organisation
When visual information reaches the brain (the visual cortex), it is reorganised so that we can make sense of it.
Interpretation
This is the process whereby the visual stimulus/ object is given meaning.
Rods
the photoreceptors providing peripheral vision in black and white. They work in dim light.
- There are about 125 000 000 in each eye
- Responsible for peripheral vision
- Low visual acuity
- Concentrated at the edges of the retina
Cones
The photoreceptors providing clear vision in colour. They need bright light in which to work.
- Concentrated in the middle of the retina
- There are about 6 500 000 in each eye
- Responsible for vision of detail
What is meant by the term ‘Gestalt’?
A German term meaning ‘good form’. Gestalt psychologists explained perceptual organisation through ‘holistic’ theories, the essence of which is that perception is achieved through top-down processing.
Perceptual constancies
enable us to maintain a stable perception of a stimulus, although the image on the retina may change e.g. size or shape
Size constancy
refers to the fact that we maintain a constant perception of an object’s size, even though the size of the image on the retina alters as the object moves nearer to or further from us.
Shape constancy
refers to the fact that an object is perceived to maintain its known shape despite the changing perspective from which it is observed.
Gestalt principles
Gestalt principles of perceptual organisation refers to the principles used to organise and interpret perceptual stimuli. They include figure-ground, closure, similarity and proximity.
Phi Phenomenon
refers to the perception of movement created by rapid presentation of a series of stationary stimuli.
Figure Ground
refers to the part of the visual field being attended to and focused on is the figure, and its surroundings are the ground.
Camouflage
is where the Gestalt principle of figure-ground is used to ‘blend’ and contour of the figure (which usually stands out) against the ground (background), making the figure more difficult to see.
Closure
is when we perceive an object as being whole, despite it’s actually being incomplete.
Similarity
is when the individual parts of a stimulus pattern are similar e.g. in size, shape, colour
Proximity
is when the individual parts of a stimulus pattern are close to each other. We tend to group them together as a meaningful ‘whole’ – a single unit
Retinal disparity
is a cue that comes about because our eyes are set about 6–7 cm apart meaning each eye receives a slightly different image on the retina.
Convergence
is also a binocular depth cue. As an object comes closer to us, our eyes turn inwards to keep the object centred on the retina.
Accomodation
involves the lens of the eye changing shape so that it can focus light rays onto the retina.
Pictorial depth cues
Pictorial depth are used by artists to create a 3-D perception of something that exists on a 2-D surface.
Linear perspective
are parallel lines made to converge as they extend along the page to an imaginary point (where in theory they meet) at the horizon.
Interposition
is based on the partial blocking or obscuring of one object by another. The obscured object appears to be further away than the object obscuring (overlapping) it.
Texture gradient
is used to make surfaces in a picture appear to recede into the distance. Artists draw less and less detail as a surface is more and more distant, the same way we see it in real life.
Relative size
is based on our tendency to perceive the object producing the largest retinal image as being the nearest, and the object producing the smallest retinal image as being the farthest.
Height in the visual field
Height in the visual field shows depth by portraying objects further away as being closer to the horizon.
Genes
the basic unit of genetic material located on the chromosomes.
Chromosomes
threadlike structures that contain genetic material.
Infancy
0-2
Childhood
2-12
Adolescence
12-20
Early adulthood
20-40
Middle age
40-65
Old age
65+
Why are twins used in research?
They separate twins at birth to see if the environment affects their personality and development as they grow up. They are from the same DNA.
How to write a hypothesis
I - Independent variable
P - Population
A - and
D - Dependent variable
How do genes impact on the way we age?
Genetics play and large role in determining biological changes. The extent to biological ageing varies between individuals because each factor is determined by genetic predisposition and environmental influences. Baldness is programmed in our genes and, unless it is related to an illness, it is largely unavoidable.
How does the environment impact on the way we age?
Environmental factors such as good food, health, parenting, education and social contexts are important in the way we age. Environmental factors can play negative and often fatal roles. For example, exposure to too much sunlight over the lifespan adds risk of cancer as well as accelerating wrinkling of the skin.
What happens to reaction time and speed as we age?
Older adults often experience an increase in reaction time. The increase in reaction time is thought to start in the mid-10s and it causes many elite athletes to retire in their mid-30s. For most people, this decline is not noticeable until 50s, 60s or later. Older adults can also experience a decline in the speed of processing of perceptual information, it can account for the decline in working memory.
Gibson and Walk experiment
Gibson and Walk produced an experiment that consisted of a small table covered with glass. On one side of the table was a ‘shallow side’, with a checkerboard pattern directly below the glass. On the other side was the ‘deep side’ with the checkerboard pattern placed a metre below the glass. Gibson and Walk found that 27 infants out of 36 who moved off the centre of the board crawled out on the shallow side at least once. Three infants crept off the edge onto the deep side and many of the infants crawled away from their mother who was calling them from the deep side, while others cried because they realised they couldn’t get to their mother without crossing the cliff.
Sensorimotor
- birth -2
- Infants learn about their world through their senses (hearing, seeing) and by actions (motor) such as grasping or pulling.
- • Object permanence
Preoperational
2-7
- Children continue to develop, and they use symbols, images and language to represent their world.
- symbolic thinking
- Animism
- egocentrism
- Centration
- seriation
- conservation
- irreversibility
Concrete operational
7-12
- Children can perform basic mental problems that involve physical objects.
Formal operational
12+
Children are able to think logically and methodically about physical and abstract problems.
Schizophrenia
Adolescence and early adulthood
Alzheimer’s disease
Old age (60+) unless early onset occurs which is early adulthood
Depression
Adolescence
Situational
How we behave in specific situations can classify our behaviour as being normal or not
Societal and cultural
Within a society there are norms and rules that govern our social behaviour. These can be tied up with our ethnic and cultural backgrounds.
Historical
The concept of normality is embedded in history and changes over time.
Statistical
The frequency with which a behaviour or characteristic occurs within the population.
Functional
A person who can think, feel and behave in a manner that allows them to carry out the activities they wish to do and be a productive member of society.
Healthy lifestyle
Living a healthy lifestyle and having regular medical check-ups can health promote fitness and well-being.
Remain mentally active
Learning new skills, acquiring new knowledge and attempting challenging games and puzzles can assist cognitive skills.
Social involvement
Having positive relationships with friends and family members, including children and grandchildren, and being involved in community events are an important source of happiness.
Consider the meaning of life
Reviewing one’s life story and being interested in the meaning of life can increase life satisfaction.
Effective copping skills
Recognising the need to adjust to change and understanding that it takes effort and it is important.
Perceptual set
is a predisposition to perceive stimuli in a specific way, that is, interpreting what we see according to certain preconceptions
Previous experience
can affect visual perception, especially if the experience holds significant personal meaning. The same stimulus can be interpreted differently by different people.
Context
refers to the environment in which a perceived stimulus is observed. Context sometimes has an immediate effect on our expectations.
Motivation
very often we see what we want to see. On a long drive, running low on petrol, a sign reading ‘FOOD AHEAD’ could be interpreted as ‘FUEL AHEAD’.
Emotion
We could interpret someone’s facial expression as showing laughing or crying, depending on how we are feeling ourselves.
Experimental group
The results are compared with the experimental group so that the effects of the independent variable can be determined.
Control group
The group of research participants which is not exposed to variations in the independent variable
Development is a lifelong process
Developmental change continues throughout life and no age period is more important than another. Developmental change involves both gains and losses in functioning across all ages.
Development is plastic and modifiable
Overcoming adversity, including psychological and physiological trauma, and being productive can occur at any time throughout the lifespan.
Development in multidirectional
Some dimensions (biological and physical, cognitive and psychosocial) are more influential than others at different ages during the lifespan.
Development is embedded in multiple contexts
Lifelong development is shaped by a number of environmental contexts, including history, culture, demographics and economics.
Development is multidimentional
Biological, cognitive and psychosocial aspects influence development.
Independent variable
It is deliberately manipulated or varied in some way by the experimenter.
Dependent variables
It is the property that is measured in the research.
Conclusion
is the final decision about what the results mean. It must be stated in terms of the original hypothesis. A conclusion would be that the hypothesis is rejected or supported.
Generalisation
is a judgement about the extent to which the research findings can be applied to the population represented by the sample. The ability to generalise from a sample relies on all the following conditions of interest:
• The sample must represent the population of interest.
• The results must reach statistical significance
• The effects of all potentially confounding variables must have been controlled.
