Unit 1: Evaluating Experiments

Question 1

Define confounding variables and give examples

Answer 1

Confounding variables are undesirable variables that influence the relationship between the independent and dependent variables

Ex: demand characteristics, researcher bias, participant variability

Question 2

What are some ways of controlling researcher bias?

Answer 2

Researchers can use blind control.

Single blind: participants don’t know what the study is about

Double blind: both the participants and the experimenter don’t know what the condition is

Question 3

What is the reactivity effect?

Answer 3

Individuals alter their performance or behaviour due to the awareness that they are being observed

Question 4

What is validity and reliability?

Answer 4

Validity questions if the research does what it claims to. Reliability asks if the results can be replicated

Question 5

What is construct validity and what are the questions that it may ask?

Answer 5

Construct validity characterises the quality of operationalisations. It asks:

Does the research measure what it claims to? (Validity)
What are the potential issues with the operationalisation of the IV and DV?

Question 6

What is ecological validity?

Answer 6

Ecological validity is the extent to which the setting in which the setting takes place is capable of producing results that are valid

Ecological validity is if the study represents what happens in real life. It is NOT just to say it’s done in a lab = lacks ecological validity. It asks if the lab can predict what would happen in the field?

Question 7

What is mundane realism? How does this different from ecological validity?

Answer 7

Mundane realism asks how artificial it is. A study high in artificiality has low mundane realism.

Memorisation of a random lists of words - low mundane realism
Retelling story = higher mundane realism

Ecological validity is not the same as mundane realism. Sometimes even it may still accurately predict what will happen outside of the lab, but when the study has high mundane realism, it perhaps is more likely to accurately predict

Question 8

What is internal validity?

Answer 8

Internal validity characterises the methodological quality of the experiment. It’s internal validity is high when confounding variables have been controlled and can be certain that the iv caused change in dv.

The less bias, the higher the internal validity

Question 9

Evaluating findings

Answer 9

Evaluating findings is asking if the study has any practical applications, which is how a theory or empirical study is used

Question 10

What is generalisability

Answer 10

This asks if the findings of the study can be applied to everyone based on the population validity

Question 11

What are the questions to ask when evaluating the study?

Answer 11

1. Aim of study
2. Who made up the sample - population
3. Can findings be applied successfully to real liras situations
4. Was it conducted in lab or natural setting
5. Were participants asked to do things that are far form real life
6. Are the findings supported of questioned by findings of other studies

Question 12

Internal validity threats or limitations

Answer 12

1. Demand characteristics
   - participants understand purpose of experiment and change their behaviour to fit that interpretation
   - behaves in the way the experimenter wants them to
   - use post experimental questionnaires
   - larger in repeated measures
2. Experiment bias
   - research unintentionally exerts an influence on results
   - use double blind design

Question 13

What is participant variability

Answer 13

This is when characteristics of the sample affect the dependent variable. This can be controlled by selecting a random sample

Question 14

Define psychology

Answer 14

Psychology is the systematic study of behaviour and mental processes

Question 15

What is a lab experiment?

Answer 15

A lab experiment is a controlled scientific investigation conducted in a laboratory setting, where researchers manipulate and control variables to study cause-and-effect relationships.

Question 16

Field experiment

Answer 16

A field experiment is a scientific study conducted in a real-world, natural setting rather than a controlled laboratory environment, with researchers manipulating and measuring variables to understand real-life phenomena

Question 17

Natural experiment

Answer 17

A natural experiment is a research study in which researchers take advantage of naturally occurring situations or events to investigate the effects of variables without direct manipulation.

Question 18

Independent variable

Answer 18

The independent variable is the variable that researchers intentionally manipulate or change in an experiment to observe its impact on the dependent variable.

Question 19

Dependent variable

Answer 19

The dependent variable is the variable that researchers measure and observe for changes as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable.

Question 20

Operationalise

Answer 20

Operationalize refers to the process of defining and measuring abstract or complex concepts in a way that allows them to be quantified and studied in a research context.

Question 21

Experiment/research hypothesis

Answer 21

An experiment or research hypothesis is a testable statement or prediction about the expected outcome of a research study, often based on prior knowledge or theory.

Question 22

Null hypothesis

Answer 22

The null hypothesis is a statement in a research study that suggests no significant effect or relationship between variables, serving as a basis for comparison with the research hypothesis.

Question 23

Control condition

Answer 23

A control condition is a group or setting in an experiment where the independent variable is not manipulated, serving as a baseline or comparison group to assess the effects of the experimental condition.

Question 24

Case study

Answer 24

A case study is an in-depth and detailed examination of an individual, group, or phenomenon, often involving multiple sources of information, to gain insights into specific psychological issues or situations.

Question 25

Observation (covert/overt)

Answer 25

Observation is a research method where researchers systematically watch and record behaviors. Covert observation is conducted without the subject’s awareness, while overt observation is done with the subject’s knowledge and consent.

Question 26

Interview (structured, semi-structured, unstructured)

Answer 26

Interviews are a method of data collection involving direct communication with participants. Structured interviews have predetermined questions and a fixed format, semi-structured interviews have some flexibility in question order and wording, and unstructured interviews allow for open-ended, free-form conversations.

Question 27

Focus group

Answer 27

A focus group is a qualitative research method where a small group of participants discusses specific topics or issues, guided by a moderator, to explore a range of perspectives and insights.

Question 28

Questionnaires

Answer 28

Questionnaires are structured sets of questions or statements used to gather standardized data from participants. They can be administered in person, by mail, online, or through other means.

Question 29

Participant bias

Answer 29

Participant bias refers to the influence participants may have on research results due to their own beliefs, expectations, or behaviors. Researchers aim to minimize participant bias to obtain more objective data.

Question 30

Ethical considerations in Psychology

Answer 30

Essential principles and guidelines that researchers and practitioners must adhere to in order to ensure the well-being, rights, and dignity of individuals involved in psychological research and practice.

Informed consent, confidentiality, minimising harm, deception, debriefing etc.

Question 31

Aim

Answer 31

The aim of a research study or experiment is a clear and concise statement of the primary goal or objective of the research. It specifies what the researcher intends to investigate or achieve through the study. The aim helps to focus the research and provides a sense of purpose.

Question 32

Target population

Answer 32

The target population refers to the specific group of individuals or elements that the researcher intends to study or make conclusions about. It is the larger group to which the study’s findings are meant to apply. For practical reasons, researchers often select a sample from the target population to study, as studying the entire population may be impractical or too costly.

Question 33

Procedure

Answer 33

The procedure outlines the step-by-step method or process followed in a research study or experiment. It describes how the research was conducted, including the recruitment of participants, data collection methods, data analysis procedures, and any other relevant details. A well-documented procedure ensures that the study can be replicated by others.

Question 34

Findings/results

Answer 34

The findings or results of a research study are the outcomes or data collected during the research process. This includes any patterns, trends, relationships, or statistical information that was discovered as a result of the research. Findings are typically presented in a clear and organized manner, often using tables, graphs, and statistical analyses. Researchers interpret these findings to draw conclusions and discuss their implications in the context of the study’s aim.

Question 35

Participant variability

Answer 35

Participant variability refers to the natural differences or variations among individuals within a study’s sample or population. These differences can include factors like age, gender, personality traits, and previous experiences. Researchers need to consider participant variability when interpreting study results.

Question 36

Generalizability

Answer 36

Generalizability is the extent to which the findings of a research study can be applied or generalized to a larger population beyond the specific sample that was studied. A study is considered more generalizable if the sample is representative of the population of interest.

Question 37

Credibility

Answer 37

Credibility in research refers to the believability, trustworthiness, and accuracy of the study’s findings. Credible research is conducted using rigorous methods, appropriate data collection techniques, and transparent reporting to ensure that the results can be trusted and accepted by the scientific community.

Question 38

Confounding variables

Answer 38

Confounding variables are extraneous factors or variables that can influence the relationship between the independent and dependent variables in a study, leading to inaccurate or misleading conclusions. Researchers need to control for or account for these variables to ensure the validity of their results.

Question 39

Demand characteristics

Answer 39

Demand characteristics are cues or subtle hints within a research study that may lead participants to infer the purpose or expected outcomes of the study. These cues can unintentionally influence participant behavior and responses, potentially affecting the study’s validity.

Question 41

Single-blind control

Answer 41

Single-blind control is an experimental design in which the participants are unaware of certain aspects of the study, such as whether they are in the experimental group or the control group. This helps reduce the influence of demand characteristics.

Question 42

Double-blind control

Answer 42

Double-blind control is an experimental design in which both the participants and the experimenters (researchers) are unaware of certain critical aspects of the study, such as the treatment or condition to which each participant is assigned. This minimizes experimenter bias and demand characteristics.

Question 43

Bidirectional ambiguity

Answer 43

Bidirectional ambiguity refers to situations where it is unclear whether one variable causes changes in another or whether the relationship is more complex. In such cases, the direction of causation is uncertain, and researchers must be cautious when interpreting the results

Question 44

Ecological validity

Answer 44

Ecological validity refers to the extent to which the findings of a study can be applied and generalized to real-world or natural settings. It assesses whether the experimental conditions and context of the study accurately reflect the situations and environments where the studied behavior or phenomenon naturally occurs.

Question 45

Internal validity

Answer 45

Internal validity assesses the degree to which the observed effects or relationships in a study are truly caused by the manipulated independent variable and not by other extraneous factors. Maintaining high internal validity helps ensure that the study’s conclusions are accurate and that the observed effects are genuine.

Question 46

External validity

Answer 46

External validity examines the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized beyond the specific sample and context in which the research was conducted. It assesses whether the results can be applied to other populations, settings, or situations.

Question 47

Reliability

Answer 47

Reliability refers to the consistency, stability, and reproducibility of research findings or measurements. In other words, it assesses whether the results can be consistently replicated by different researchers or through repeated measurements. Reliable research produces consistent results over time.

Question 48

Cross-cultural validity

Answer 48

Cross-cultural validity refers to the extent to which research findings and psychological theories can be applied across different cultural groups. It assesses whether the concepts, measurements, and conclusions from psychological research hold true in diverse cultural contexts, without cultural bias.

Question 49

Participant bias

Answer 49

Participant bias, also known as participant expectancy or experimenter expectancy effect, occurs when participants in a research study consciously or unconsciously alter their behavior or responses based on their expectations of what the researcher wants or the perceived purpose of the study. This can lead to skewed results if participants do not behave or respond naturally.

Question 50

Social desirability bias

Answer 50

Social desirability bias is a type of response bias where participants in a research study provide responses that they believe are socially acceptable or desirable, rather than expressing their true beliefs, feelings, or behaviors. This bias can lead to the underreporting of socially undesirable behaviors or the overreporting of socially desirable ones.

Question 51

Research bias,

Answer 51

Research bias, also known as experimenter bias or observer bias, occurs when researchers unintentionally or consciously influence the outcomes of a study due to their own beliefs, expectations, or behaviors. This bias can affect the validity of the research results.

Question 52

Reactivity

Answer 52

Reactivity, in the context of research, refers to the phenomenon where participants alter their behavior or responses when they are aware that they are being observed or studied. This awareness of being observed can lead to changes in behavior that do not accurately represent their usual actions or attitudes, potentially affecting the study’s validity.