Paper 3

Question 1

Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of a lab experiment.

Answer 1

1. Decide on a single variable (independent variable) that they manipulate in order to see whether this brings about change in in the dependent variable, which is measured in some quantitive way
2. All other variables that might effect DV are controlled so that we can be sure that IV caused DV to change -> strong internal validity

Question 2

Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of a field experiment

Answer 2

1. Seeks causal relationships between deliberately manipulated IV and measured DV, but does NOT take place under controlled conditions -> real world experiments but decreases internal validity
2. Participants often unaware they’re being observed/part of experiment -> natural behaviour -> increasing ecological validity

Question 3

Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of a quasi experiment

Answer 3

1. Seeks to find cause/effect Participants are not randomly allocated to experimental and/or control groups
2. Findings lack internal validity as there may be uncontrolled variables that led participants to be in different groups -> responsible to changes in DV

Question 4

Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of a natural experiment

Answer 4

1. Independent variable is naturally occurring and the change between experimental/control conditions is due to factors outside of experiments control
2. May lack internal validity as changed in DV may be because of extraneous factors

Question 5

Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of a correlational study

Answer 5

1. Has no manipulated variable and doesn’t seek to establish causal relationships -> has 2+ measured variables “co-variables” by quantiative data
2. Common in consideration of ethics/practicality -> doesn’t attempt to establish causality, internal validity relates to the extent the instruments can be used to measured co-variables

Question 6

Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of a participant naturalistic observation

Answer 6

1. Observer collects data in natural environment without any deliberate manipulation, using qualitative field notes
2. Researcher becomes actively involved, facilities unique perspective -. questions of subjectivity, increases credibility

Question 7

Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of a non-participant observation

Answer 7

1. Observer collects data in natural environment without any deliberate manipulation to setting, using field notes
2. Covert observation, participants are unaware of observer -> ethical if in public -> less effected by demand characteristics/evaluation apprehension

Question 8

Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of case study

Answer 8

1. Focus on a single individual/group/organisation is unusual – collects detailed case history including secondary data to gain necessary insight before collecting their primary data
2. Compose of data gathered by a variety of techniques (like interviews, observations, standardised tests) through METHOD TRIANGULATION -> rich and detailed insight into beavhiour of interest

Question 9

Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of an unstructured interview

Answer 9

1. Clear research objective and interview schedule will include broad topic/themes – the direction of the interview is determined by the interviewee & the interview bases any questions off previous responses
2. Interviewers need more training and experience to collect credible data – there is no script and they must elicit relevant information without LEADING QUESTIONS

Question 10

Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of a semi-structured interview

Answer 10

1. More flexible than a structured interview – still a predetermined set of questions in the interview schedule but the interviewer may choose/rephrase/alter order as appropriate
2. Includes both open & closed questions => longer/richer answers or brief/precise ones

Question 11

Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of a focus group

Answer 11

1. Comprises of 8-12 people interviewed together about a topic of common interest -> allows members to have their say/share experiences/ develop a sense of belonging and trust to talk freely about sensitive issues
2. The researcher becomes a group facilitator who monitors the discussion; keeps the group on topic, and ensures all issues are responded to and explored within the time frame

Question 12

Q1| Describe the random sampling method

Answer 12

Random sampling is when every person in the target population has an equal chance of being sampled. Typically, researchers will have the names of every person in the target population and will select names at random.

Question 13

Q1 | Describe the opportunity/convenience sampling method

Answer 13

involves simply asking anyone who happens to be there if they would like to participate. For instance, asking students in the library if they would be willing to complete a survey.

Question 14

Q1 | Describe the volunteer sampling method

Answer 14

involves recruiting people who volunteer to participate in a study, often for payment. Typically, posters will be placed on a university campus or in a public location, or classified ads will be placed online or in a newspaper.

Question 15

Q1 | Describe the purposive sampling method

Answer 15

you set out to identify members of the population who are likely to possess certain characteristics or experiences (and to be willing to share them with you). In this way, you can select the individuals or cases that fit your study, focusing on a relatively small sample

Question 16

Q1 | Describe the snowball sampling method

Answer 16

Is when participants are asked to refer other people they know (ex. family or friends) who would be willing to participate in the study.

Question 17

Q2 | List the 6 ethical considerations that must be included

Answer 17

1. Informed consent
2. Right to withdraw
3. Protection from harm
4. Deception
5. Debriefing
6. Confidentiality

Question 18

Q2 | Describe the ethical considerations in reporting the results

Answer 18

1. informed consent
2. Right to withdraw
3. Confidentiality

Question 19

Q3 | Discuss the possibility of generalising the findings of the study

Answer 19

Generalisability = external validity = the extent to which the findings from a sample are applicable to a population.

Take into consideration:
1. Sampling method (random sampling is ideal)
2. Sampling bias
3. Sample size (bigger the better)
4. Replication

Question 20

Q3 | Discuss the possibility of transferring the findings of the study

Answer 20

Transferability = the extent to which the results can be considered relevant to other contexts and settings

1. “Thick consideration” - sample, context, methods
2. Important variables (used to compare the two contexts)

Question 21

Q3 | Discuss how a researcher could ensure that the results of the study are credible

Answer 21

1. member checking (endorsement of findings by participants)
2. Triangulations (data, method, researcher, theoretical)
3. Reflexivity (acknowledgement of possible researcher bias)

Question 22

Q3 | Dicuss how a researcher in the study could avoid bias

Answer 22

1. Researcher bias - experiment effect, reflexivity, researcher triangulation
2. Participant bais - demand characteristics, social desirability bias
3. Sampling bias - method and characteristics

Question 23

Define bias and the types of bias

Answer 23

BIAS: factors that may affect the results of the study

RESEARCHER: when researcher acts different towards participants, which may influence/alter the participant’s behaviour. Researcher must assess personal biases in relation to the study (topic, choice of participants/method), and apply reflexivity to control

PARTICIPANT: this is demand characteristics: expectancy effect, screw-you effect, social desirability effect, optimism effect,

SAMPLING: when sample does not represent the target population (shld be based on selection data/probability/random sampling)

Question 24

Define credibility

Answer 24

Credibility is used in qualitative research to indicate if the findings are congruent with participants perception/experiences. In quantitative research, it measures the internal validity, which is the extent the change in DV is caused by the IV

Question 25

Define reliability

Answer 25

Reliability is the consistency of a study in terms of the extent to which a test or measure produces the same results in repeated trials through replication

Question 26

Define validity and the two different types.

Answer 26

Validity is the degree to which results accurately reflect what the research is measuring.

External validity: extent to which results of a study can be generalised/transferred to another sample or context

Internal validity: rigour of the study and the extent to which the researcher took alternative explanations into account

Population validity: whether you can reasonably generalise the findings from your sample to a larger group of people (the population)

Ecological validity: a measure of how test performance predicts behaviours in real-world settings

Construct validity: operationalisations of variables and to what extent do they reflect the constructs from our aim – if they are well operationalised then we can generalise to a theory.

Question 27

Define triangulation

Answer 27

Triangulation is an approach used to ensure enough evidence is available to make a valid claim about the results of a study

.Methodological triangulation tests a theory or a psychological phenomenon using different methods of inquiry.

Data from a variety of methods (survey, interview, case study, experiments) is used to help validate the results of a study. Also: data triangulation (data used from different studies on same topic), theory (different perspectives) and researcher triangulation (more than one researcher observing/analysing etc).