Paper 3 Flashcards
Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of a lab experiment.
- Decide on a single variable (independent variable) that they manipulate in order to see whether this brings about change in in the dependent variable, which is measured in some quantitive way
- All other variables that might effect DV are controlled so that we can be sure that IV caused DV to change -> strong internal validity
Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of a field experiment
- Seeks causal relationships between deliberately manipulated IV and measured DV, but does NOT take place under controlled conditions -> real world experiments but decreases internal validity
- Participants often unaware they’re being observed/part of experiment -> natural behaviour -> increasing ecological validity
Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of a quasi experiment
- Seeks to find cause/effect Participants are not randomly allocated to experimental and/or control groups
- Findings lack internal validity as there may be uncontrolled variables that led participants to be in different groups -> responsible to changes in DV
Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of a natural experiment
- Independent variable is naturally occurring and the change between experimental/control conditions is due to factors outside of experiments control
- May lack internal validity as changed in DV may be because of extraneous factors
Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of a correlational study
- Has no manipulated variable and doesn’t seek to establish causal relationships -> has 2+ measured variables “co-variables” by quantiative data
- Common in consideration of ethics/practicality -> doesn’t attempt to establish causality, internal validity relates to the extent the instruments can be used to measured co-variables
Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of a participant naturalistic observation
- Observer collects data in natural environment without any deliberate manipulation, using qualitative field notes
- Researcher becomes actively involved, facilities unique perspective -. questions of subjectivity, increases credibility
Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of a non-participant observation
- Observer collects data in natural environment without any deliberate manipulation to setting, using field notes
- Covert observation, participants are unaware of observer -> ethical if in public -> less effected by demand characteristics/evaluation apprehension
Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of case study
- Focus on a single individual/group/organisation is unusual – collects detailed case history including secondary data to gain necessary insight before collecting their primary data
- Compose of data gathered by a variety of techniques (like interviews, observations, standardised tests) through METHOD TRIANGULATION -> rich and detailed insight into beavhiour of interest
Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of an unstructured interview
- Clear research objective and interview schedule will include broad topic/themes – the direction of the interview is determined by the interviewee & the interview bases any questions off previous responses
- Interviewers need more training and experience to collect credible data – there is no script and they must elicit relevant information without LEADING QUESTIONS
Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of a semi-structured interview
- More flexible than a structured interview – still a predetermined set of questions in the interview schedule but the interviewer may choose/rephrase/alter order as appropriate
- Includes both open & closed questions => longer/richer answers or brief/precise ones
Q1 | Describe 2 characteristics of a focus group
- Comprises of 8-12 people interviewed together about a topic of common interest -> allows members to have their say/share experiences/ develop a sense of belonging and trust to talk freely about sensitive issues
- The researcher becomes a group facilitator who monitors the discussion; keeps the group on topic, and ensures all issues are responded to and explored within the time frame
Q1| Describe the random sampling method
Random sampling is when every person in the target population has an equal chance of being sampled. Typically, researchers will have the names of every person in the target population and will select names at random.
Q1 | Describe the opportunity/convenience sampling method
involves simply asking anyone who happens to be there if they would like to participate. For instance, asking students in the library if they would be willing to complete a survey.
Q1 | Describe the volunteer sampling method
involves recruiting people who volunteer to participate in a study, often for payment. Typically, posters will be placed on a university campus or in a public location, or classified ads will be placed online or in a newspaper.
Q1 | Describe the purposive sampling method
you set out to identify members of the population who are likely to possess certain characteristics or experiences (and to be willing to share them with you). In this way, you can select the individuals or cases that fit your study, focusing on a relatively small sample
Q1 | Describe the snowball sampling method
Is when participants are asked to refer other people they know (ex. family or friends) who would be willing to participate in the study.
Q2 | List the 6 ethical considerations that must be included
- Informed consent
- Right to withdraw
- Protection from harm
- Deception
- Debriefing
- Confidentiality
Q2 | Describe the ethical considerations in reporting the results
- informed consent
- Right to withdraw
- Confidentiality
Q3 | Discuss the possibility of generalising the findings of the study
Generalisability = external validity = the extent to which the findings from a sample are applicable to a population.
Take into consideration:
1. Sampling method (random sampling is ideal)
2. Sampling bias
3. Sample size (bigger the better)
4. Replication
Q3 | Discuss the possibility of transferring the findings of the study
Transferability = the extent to which the results can be considered relevant to other contexts and settings
- “Thick consideration” - sample, context, methods
- Important variables (used to compare the two contexts)
Q3 | Discuss how a researcher could ensure that the results of the study are credible
- member checking (endorsement of findings by participants)
- Triangulations (data, method, researcher, theoretical)
- Reflexivity (acknowledgement of possible researcher bias)
Q3 | Dicuss how a researcher in the study could avoid bias
- Researcher bias - experiment effect, reflexivity, researcher triangulation
- Participant bais - demand characteristics, social desirability bias
- Sampling bias - method and characteristics
Define bias and the types of bias
BIAS: factors that may affect the results of the study
RESEARCHER: when researcher acts different towards participants, which may influence/alter the participant’s behaviour. Researcher must assess personal biases in relation to the study (topic, choice of participants/method), and apply reflexivity to control
PARTICIPANT: this is demand characteristics: expectancy effect, screw-you effect, social desirability effect, optimism effect,
SAMPLING: when sample does not represent the target population (shld be based on selection data/probability/random sampling)
Define credibility
Credibility is used in qualitative research to indicate if the findings are congruent with participants perception/experiences. In quantitative research, it measures the internal validity, which is the extent the change in DV is caused by the IV
Define reliability
Reliability is the consistency of a study in terms of the extent to which a test or measure produces the same results in repeated trials through replication
Define validity and the two different types.
Validity is the degree to which results accurately reflect what the research is measuring.
External validity: extent to which results of a study can be generalised/transferred to another sample or context
Internal validity: rigour of the study and the extent to which the researcher took alternative explanations into account
Population validity: whether you can reasonably generalise the findings from your sample to a larger group of people (the population)
Ecological validity: a measure of how test performance predicts behaviours in real-world settings
Construct validity: operationalisations of variables and to what extent do they reflect the constructs from our aim – if they are well operationalised then we can generalise to a theory.
Define triangulation
Triangulation is an approach used to ensure enough evidence is available to make a valid claim about the results of a study
.Methodological triangulation tests a theory or a psychological phenomenon using different methods of inquiry.
Data from a variety of methods (survey, interview, case study, experiments) is used to help validate the results of a study. Also: data triangulation (data used from different studies on same topic), theory (different perspectives) and researcher triangulation (more than one researcher observing/analysing etc).
