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GCSE Psychology > Unit 1: Development > Flashcards

Unit 1: Development Flashcards

1
Q

Define Adaptation

A

using assimilation and accomodation
to make sense of the world

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2
Q

Define Assimilation

A

incorporating new experiences into existing schemas

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3
Q

Define Accommodation

A

when a schema doesn’t work anymore, so you must change it to deal with an experience

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4
Q

Define Equilibrium

A

when a child’s schemas make sense to them and explains everything they experience

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5
Q

Define Schemas

A

A mental representation of knowledge

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6
Q

Define Mindset

A

a set of beliefs we have about our ability to succeed at thing. these beliefs influence how we response to or interpret a situation.

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7
Q

Define Morals

A

standards of right and wrong behaviour that can differ between cultures and situations. basically what is considered to be right or wrong

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8
Q

Define Morality

A

‘proper behaviour’, how people should behave according to the principles of what’s right and wrong. and separating these factors as good and bad.

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9
Q

Define Moral Development

A

how children reason about what is right or wrong, and how their understanding grows as they reach into adulthood.

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10
Q

How old do you have to be to develop morality?

A

all people above the age of 10 are able to consider the factors of intention.

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11
Q

Define the brain

A

the organ in your head made up of nerves that processes information and control behaviour

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12
Q

Describe the development of the brain at 3-4 weeks after conception

A

a long tube develops divided into 3 distinct round sections. forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.

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13
Q

Describe the development of the brain at 5 weeks after conception

A

forebrain and hindbrain split into a further 2 cavities. forebrain splits into an anterior and posterior section. the hindbrain splits in the middles and the midbrain doesn’t divide.

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14
Q

Describe the development of the cerebellum

A

can be seen at 6 weeks after conception and a year after birth it triples in size.

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15
Q

What is the function of the cerebellum?

A

controls physical skills which develop a lot during the time after birth as they learn to walk etc. which accounts for its growth. it is also involved in responses like fear and in functions like processing sense information.

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16
Q

What is the role of the medulla oblongata?

A

it controls involuntary responses such as sneezing, breathing, heartrate and blood pressure. it connects the rest of the brain to the spinal chord.

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17
Q

When is the medulla developed?

A

20 weeks after conception

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18
Q

How many neural connections form every second?

A

700-1000 new neural connections

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19
Q

What are neural connections?

A

links formed by messages passing from one nerve cell (neuron) to another

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20
Q

What are neural connections for?

A

for fast communication between the many different parts of the brain. early connections are important for babies to get plenty of simulation.

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21
Q

How does the brain size develop by 3 years old?

A

doubles in size over first year, reached 80% of its full size by 3 years old.

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22
Q

What is anterior and posterior?

A

anterior: towards the front
posterior: towards the back

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23
Q

Where is the medulla?

A

in the hindbrain in front of the cerebellum - connecting brain to spinal chord.

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24
Q

What are involuntary responses?

A

actions that you don’t think about and happen automatically. such as sneezing or breathing.

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25
Q

What is the theory of cognitive development?

A

a theory created by a psychologist called Piaget who believed children go through different stages of development as they grow from birth to 12 years old.

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26
Q

What are the 4 stages of cognitive development?

A

sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, formal operational

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27
Q

Describe the sensorimotor stage

A

birth to 2 years old

children use their senses and movements to explore the world, this is why they always put things in their mouth to taste, touch everything etc.

develop object permanence, and at 4 months like to repeat things a lot.

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28
Q

Describe the pre-operational stage

A

2 to 7 years old

children start curiosity in how they do things and start reasoning.

includes 2 stages
symbolic function stage (2-4)
includes symbolic play, egocentrism, and animism

intuitive thought stage (4-7)
start of reasoning.
they have centration.
irreversibility, conservation not achieved

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29
Q

Describe the concrete oporational stage

A

7 to 12 years old

children start to use rules and strategies to figure things out, using concrete objects help their understanding and thinking

conservation is developed, morality is developed, seriation developed

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30
Q

Describe the formal operational stage

A

12 years old +

children develop control over their thoughts: thinking 2 or more things of a person and more complex thoughts

ability to think about the future and how time changes things, and able to use hypothetical thought

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31
Q

What is object permanence and when is it developed?

A

the ability to know something is there even though it is out of sight, it is developed at 6 months

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32
Q

What is symbolic play?

A

when a child uses objects to represent other objects, ideas, and actions.

for example, playing with a cardboard box and pretending it’s a car

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33
Q

What is egocentrism?

A

when children are only able to see the world through their own perspective

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34
Q

What is animism?

A

when children believe that objects are alive and can have feelings. for example, a child may believe their teddy bear has feelings too.

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35
Q

What is ireversability?

A

when a child can’t understand that some things cannot be reversed after they are done. for example, you can’t put back together a piece of toast if it were already cut

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36
Q

What is centration?

A

the ability to focus on only one thing when something is too complex to understand

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37
Q

What is conservation?

A

when someone understands that changing how something looks does not change the volume, mass, size, quantity etc.

eg. a thinner glass may look like it has more water in it but it doesn’t

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38
Q

What is seriation?

A

being able to categorize things by size or other orders

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39
Q

What is hypothetical thought?

A

someone is able to infer the the consequences of an action before doing it

40
Q

How has Piaget’s practices been applied to classrooms and teachers?

A

childrens actions and interactions affect their thinking. children can’t do specific things until they have reached the right stage.

children are egocentric so if they do something to hurt someone they aren’t being naughty, they just don’t understand how that affects other people.

children build their own schemas based on their own experiences so they will be different to other students.

41
Q

Define growth mindset

A

believing practice and effort can improve your abilities

42
Q

Define fixed mindset

A

believing your abilities are fixed and unchangeable

43
Q

Define ability

A

what someone is already capable of. can be seen as fixed or as able to be improved.

44
Q

Define effort

A

when you try and improve a skill using determination

45
Q

How might children with a growth mindset behave compared to someone with a fixed mindset?

A

children with a growth mindset will put effort into improving their abilities.

children with a fixed mindset tend to stop trying and give up immediately. because they think they cannot change any skills they aren’t born with.

46
Q

How might teachers with a fixed mindset or growth mindset influence children’s behaviour?

A

teachers with a fixed mindset may influence children to stop trying

teachers with a growth mindset may influence children to put effort to improve their skills

47
Q

What did Mueller and Dweck (1998) find?

A

praising ability led to fixed mindsets

praising effort led to growth mindsets

48
Q

What did Yeager and Dweck (2012) find?

A

1500 low achieving students performed better with a growth mindset compared to a control group which didn’t

49
Q

What are the strategies to support physical development?

A
  • focus on movements suitable for the action they want to carry out
  • practice movements enough times to build muscle memory
  • use conscious effort to develop further by changing things
50
Q

What are the strategies to improve social development?

A
  • children can think about the consequences for their actions to stop impulsive behaviour
  • children use social learning so demonstrate good examples in front of them so they can be influenced
  • children can use self-regulation to stop yourself from wanting to do things you would rather do
  • delay giving a reward so children have something to work for
51
Q

What was Willingham’s disagreement with Piaget?

A

Willingham believed that children can view other people’s perspective by 18 months and not 7 years old.

Piaget then agreed and changed the stages of egocentrism and decentration to 18 months

52
Q

What is social learning?

A

learning by observing and copying others

53
Q

What is decentration?

A

being able to separate yourself from the world and take different views of a situation. the opposite of egocentrism.

54
Q

What is self regulation?

A

limiting and controlling yourself without taking influence from others

55
Q

What are the strategies to improve cognitive development?

A
  • give new problems to students that are within their ability but still has a challenge and requires effort
  • plan activities according to the child’s stage, but consider factors apart from developments as well since all children have different understandings and abilities.
56
Q

What is Piaget’s theory of the Development of Morality?

A

Heteronomous Stage:
Between 5-10 years old, rules are decided by other people and are put on children. children in this stage believe rules cannot be change and if to be broken leads to punishment. This stage focuses on the consequences of actions, directed by others.

Autonomous Stage:
From 10 years old onwards, rules are decided by the individual themselves. Children know that bad consequences can still come from a good action because of intention. There are rights to change the rules if everyone agrees, people tend to become more flexible about rules to benefit others.

57
Q

What are the levels in Kohlberg’s Theory?

A

Level 1 - Pre Conventional (stages 1 & 2)
Level 2 - Conventional (stages 3 & 4)
Level 3 - Post Conventional (stages 5 & 6)

58
Q

Describe Level 1 Pre-conventional Morality

A

about 9 years old

the child believes rules cannot be changed, the consequence of an action can either be a punishment or a reward.
basic views of what’s right and wrong

stage 1: the child obeys rules in order to avoid punishment
stage 2: the child is about self-interest and has “what’s in it for me” driven behaviour. meaning they only follow rules and actions if it benefits them.

59
Q

Describe Level 2 Conventional Morality

A

most young people and adults

the person sees themselves as a good member of society, they point for good moral behaviour, bringing reasoning from norms.

stage 3: about being good and conforming to social rules in order to be liked
stage 4: maintaining social order by obeying authority as a duty

60
Q

What are norms?

A

society’s values that a person in society should follow

61
Q

Describe Level 3 Post-conventional Morality

A

10% of people reach this level

the individual has their own ideas about what is right and wrong. they understand that some moral principals are universal and not just for society (eg. respect)

stage 5: laws are social contracts people enter into, different people have different laws they choose to agree to.
stage 6: understanding that there are universal principals that must be followed. moral reasoning is abstract, focuses on universal principles as to just individual morals. they go beyond the social laws to what their individual morals are.

62
Q

What are the strengths of Dweck’s Mindset Theory?

A

has practical applications, if teacher praise effort the theory has a positive outcome and can help society. believing that abilities can change leads to better school performance

evidence to support mindset theory: Yeager and Dweck (2012) found that adolescents could deal better with not fitting in with a growth mindset

63
Q

What are the weaknesses of Dweck’s Mindset Theory?

A

many studies have experiments in artificial environments that lack ecological validity (except Gunderson)

focusing too much on a child’s mindset shifts attention away from lessons themselves

many studies overlook the impact of feedback and focus on only praise

64
Q

What is working memory?

A

different parts for processing information coming in from our senses, including visual and sound data, and also involves a decision making part

65
Q

What does Willingham mean by “factual knowledge precedes skill”?

A

knowing facts helped when building skills of problem-solving and reasoning. knowledge frees up space in our working memory to allow us to use mental skills. what someone already knows leaves them with more processing power to solve a problem.

66
Q

What is the importance of practice and effort?

A

practice and effort enable us to master skills. it is important to practice things enough until they become automatic, in order to leave enough working memory for learning new things. the skill must be repeating many times and kept up in order to maintain it.

67
Q

What is Willingham’s famous quote?

A

“don’t practice until you get it right, practice until you never get it wrong.”

68
Q

What is the importance for building knowledge?

A

short-term memory involves practice, rehearsing what is to be remembered. what is learned goes into the long-term memory and must be reviewed and practiced overtime to remember it. after a specific time of practice and effort it stays in the LTM and is unlikely to be forgotten.

69
Q

What are some ways to practice and build knowledge?

A

quizzes and different tasks to learn the material

70
Q

What is the importance for building skills?

A

problem solving and creative thinking are skills a student needs to learn. these skills use working memory, therefore need to be developed to become automatic.

71
Q

What are the strengths of Willingham’s learning theory?

A

practical applications in education, positively influencing a child’s development

lots of theories to support (Repacholi & Gopnik 1997 found support that children aren’t as egocentric as Piaget thought, Piaget himself agreed and changed it from 7 years to 18 months)

72
Q

What are the weaknesses of Willingham’s Learning Theory?

A

lacks emphasis on individual differences in learning (such as inherited traits like self regulation and impulsivity)

experimental evidence is valuable however lacks ecological validity since not done in realistic environments

his ideas come from many areas (eg. memory, neuropsych) therefore cannot be seen as one theory and can’t be tested uniformly.

73
Q

What is the background for Piaget and Inhelder (1956) 3 Mountains Task?

A

children in the pre-operational stage are egocentric. this experiment was to study children’s perspectives. 3 mountains on a model, children were on different sides of the model and were asked to describe different views.

74
Q

What were the aims of Piaget and Inhelder’s (1956) 3 Mountains Task?

A

to see the extent to which children of different ages can view other perspectives

the overall system of putting together a number of views of what they see.

75
Q

What is decentration?

A

developing the ability to view multiple perspectives

76
Q

Describe the procedure of Piaget and Inhelder’s (1956) 3 Mountains Task

A
  1. 100 children were studied above the age of 4
  2. a model was created with pasted sheets of paper
  3. 10 pictures of the model were taken from different positions
  4. there was a wooden doll placed around different places on the model
  5. the child was shown multiple pictures of the model from different perspectives and asked to pick the one the doll could see
  6. the child positions the doll so it can see that viewpoint.
77
Q

What were the results of Piaget and Inhelder’s (1956) 3 Mountains Task?

A

pre-operational stage: ages 4-6.5 choose their own view instead of the dolls

concrete operational stage: ages 7-9 understand the doll sees differently
ages 9-10 understand full if the doll is positioned elsewhere

78
Q

What is the conclusion of Piaget and Inhelder’s (1956) 3 Mountains Task?

A

children up to 7 years old are egocentric, providing evidence for Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

79
Q

What are the strengths of Piaget and Inhelder’s (1956) 3 Mountains Task?

A

in depth qualitative data, lots of repeats and large sample size resulting in reliable data, carefully considered errors

80
Q

What are the weaknesses of Piaget and Inhelder’s (1956) 3 Mountains Task?

A

stages are not as different as explained

ecologically valid scenarios proved these findings wrong

children didn’t really understand the task

81
Q

What is person praise and what does it lead to?

A

someone praises the individual rather than what they are doing

leads to entity theory/entity motivational framework

82
Q

What is process praise and what does it lead to?

A

someone praises what is being done and not the individual

leads to incremental theory/incremental motivational framework

83
Q

What is entity theory?

A

a belief that someone’s behaviour/ability results from a persons nature

84
Q

What is incremental theory?

A

a belief that effort drives behaviour and ability, which can change

85
Q

What is the impact of experimental evidence in Dweck’s theory?

A

it is based in an artificial environment meaning it can measure unnatural behaviour lacking ecological validity. Gunderson’s study is based in a natural setting

86
Q

What are the impacts of praise on gender?

A

boys believe in incremental theory because they receive more process praise

girls get more person praise therefore believe in entity theory

87
Q

What are the aims of Gunderson et al (2013)’s study?

A

whether children are affected by types of parental praise given in a natural setting

whether parents give girls less process praise and more person praise compared to boys

whether parents use of process/person praise in early childhood predicts their reasoning for behaviours 5 years later

88
Q

What was the method for Gunderson et al (2013)’s study?

A

study followed a group of children over a long period of time. they look at parents use of praise at home from 14,26,38 months. 5 years later the children’s idea of behaviour measured and relucted to the type of praise they received

89
Q

What were the participants like in Gunderson et al (2013)’s study?

A

29 boys 24 girls and their caretakers
53 pairs in total

64% white 17% african american 11% hispanic 8% multiracial backgrounds

90
Q

What were the participants told to do in Gunderson et al (2013)’s study?

A

they were told the study was about language development

asked to go about a typical day at home

caregiver to child interactions were taped in 90 minute videos

91
Q

What happened to the children in Gunderson et al (2013)’s study once they turned 7-8 years old?

A

they were given 2 questionnaires to answer about what led to a persons intentions and to act morally.

92
Q

What were the results of Gunderson et al (2013)’s study?

A

3% of all parent comments were praise

18% of all praise was process and 16% was person

24.4% process praise for boys 10.3% for girls

93
Q

What was the conclusion of Gunderson et al (2013)’s study?

A

process praise leads to incremental theory

person praise has no effect

boys get more process praise then girls therefore had more incremental framework

94
Q

What were the strengths of Gunderson et al (2013)’s study?

A

Dweck’s findings were supported in experimental and naturalistic conditions

researchers and participants didn’t know focus of study so no bias

95
Q

What were the weaknesses of Gunderson et al (2013)’s study?

A

ethical concerns since participants were deceived about the focus of the study

parents may show demand characteristics when observed, compromising data reliability

53 parent child pairs in Chicago isn’t a representable and generalisable sample to a broader population.

96
Q

What are the weaknesses of the morality theories?

A

Piaget and Kohlberg used stories that were artificial and might not
represent real thinking. There were no real
consequences in the stories from the decisions that were made.

Carol Gilligan (1977) criticised Kohlberg, saying his male-only sample
meant his theory was about male morality

GCSE Psychology (7 decks)

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