Unit 1 - Communication and Signalling Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
1
Q

What do multicellular organisms use to signal between cells?

A

Extracellular signalling molecules.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Give 3 examples of extracellular signalling molecules.

A

Steroid hormones, peptide hormones and neurotransmitters.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What are receptor molecules of target cells and how do they initiate a response within the cell?

A

They are proteins with a binding site for a specific signal molecule.
Binding changes the conformation of the receptor, which initiates a response within the cell.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Why might signalling molecules have different effects on different target cell types?

A

Due to differences in the intracellular signalling molecules and pathways that are involved.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What are hydrophobic molecules?

A

Molecules that are repelled by water. Also known as non-polar.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What type of signalling molecules can diffuse directly through phospholipid bilayers?

A

Hydrophobic signalling molecules.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What type of receptors do hydrophobic signalling molecules bind to?

A

Intracellular receptors called transcription factors.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What are transcription factors?

A

Proteins that when bound to DNA can either stimulate or inhibit initiation of transcription.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Give 2 examples of hydrophobic signalling molecules.

A

Steroid hormones oestrogen and testosterone.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Where do steroid hormones bind to specific receptors?

A

In the cytosol or the nucleus.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What happens to a steroid hormone after it has bound to its specific receptor?

A

The hormone-receptor complex moves to the nucleus where it binds to specific sites on DNA and affects gene expression.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What are the specific sites on DNA that the steroid hormone-receptor complex binds to?

A

Specific DNA sequences called hormone response elements.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What does binding of a hormone-receptor complex to hormone response elements (HREs) affect?

A

Influences the rate of transcription, with each steroid hormone affecting the gene expression of many different genes.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What are hydrophilic molecules?

A

Molecules that are attracted to water and tends to be dissolved by water. Also known as polar molecules.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What type of receptors do hydrophilic signalling molecules bind to?

A

Transmembrane receptors.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Give 2 examples of hydrophilic extracellular signalling molecules.

A

Peptide hormones and neurotransmitters.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

What happens when hydrophilic signalling molecules bind to transmembrane receptors?

A

Transmembrane receptors change conformation. The signal molecule does not enter the cell but the signal is transduced across the plasma membrane.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What is transduction?

A

Process by which a chemical or physical signal is transmitted through a cell by a series of molecular events resulting in a cellular response.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

How do transmembrane proteins act as signal transducers?

A

By converting the extracellular ligand-binding event into intracellular signals, which alters the behaviour of the cell.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What do transduced hydrophilic signals often involve?

A

G-proteins or cascades of phosphorylation by kinase enzymes.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What do G-proteins do?

A

Relay signals from activated receptors (receptors that have bound a signalling molecule) to target proteins such as enzymes and ion channels.

22
Q

How many intracellular signalling pathways do phosphorylation cascades allow to be activated?

A

More than one.

23
Q

What do phosphorylation cascades involve?

A

A series of events with one kinase activating the next in the sequence and so on. Phosphorylation cascades can result in the phosphorylation of many proteins as a result of the original signalling event.

24
Q

What does binding of the peptide hormone insulin to its receptor result in?

A

Conformational change that triggers phosphorylation of the receptor. This starts a phosphorylation cascade inside the cell that triggers the recruitment of GLUT4 proteins to the cell membrane of fat and muscle cells.

25
Q

What is type 1 diabetes mellitus caused by?

A

Failure to produce insulin.

26
Q

What is type 2 diabetes mellitus caused by?

A

Loss of receptor function.

27
Q

What is type 2 diabetes mellitus generally associated with?

A

Obesity.

28
Q

Why can exercise help type 2 diabetes mellitus?

A

Exercise triggers recruitment of GLUT4, so can improve uptake of glucose to fat and muscle cells.

29
Q

What is a nerve impulse?

A

A signal transmitted across a nerve fibre.

30
Q

What is the resting membrane potential?

A

State where there is no net flow of ions across the membrane.

31
Q

What does the transmission of a nerve impulse require?

A

Changes in the membrane potential of the neuron’s plasma membrane.

32
Q

What is an action potential?

A

A wave of electrical excitation along a neuron’s plasma membrane.

33
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

Chemicals that transmit a signal across a synapse.

34
Q

How do neurotransmitters initiate a response?

A

By binding to their receptors (ligand-gated ion channels) at a synapse.

35
Q

What is depolarisation?

A

A sudden change in membrane potential (usually from a negative to positive internal charge).

36
Q

What does depolarisation of the plasma membrane as a result of the entry of positive ions trigger?

A

Triggers the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels and further depolarisation occurs.

37
Q

What restores the resting membrane potential?

A

Membrane repolarisation from the inactivation of the sodium channels and the opening of voltage-gated potassium channels.

38
Q

What are neurotransmitter receptors?

A

Ligand-gated ion channels.

39
Q

What must voltage/action potential reach to start membrane depolarisation?

A

A threshold value

40
Q

What is hyperpolarisation?

A

A lowered membrane potential caused by the efflux of potassium ions and closing of the potassium channels.

41
Q

What is membrane depolarisation caused by?

A

A rapid rise in membrane potential caused by opening of sodium channels in the cellular membrane, resulting in a large influx of sodium ions.

42
Q

What does depolarisation of a patch of membrane cause neighbouring regions of membrane to do?

A

Depolarise and go through the same cycle, as adjacent voltage-gated sodium channels are opened.

43
Q

What happens when the action potential reaches the end of the neuron?

A

Vesicles containing neurotransmitter fuse with the membrane - this releases neurotransmitter which stimulates a response in a connecting cell.

44
Q

How are ion concentration gradients re-established?

A

The sodium-potassium pump actively transports excess ions in and out of the cell.

45
Q

What is the retina?

A

The area within the eye that detects light.

46
Q

What are the two types of photoreceptor cells that retina contains?

A

Rods and cones.

47
Q

What are rod cells?

A

Cells that function in dim light but do not allow colour perception.

48
Q

What are cone cells?

A

Cells that are responsible for colour vision and only function in bright light.

49
Q

What is the retinal-opsin complex called in rod cells?

A

Rhodopsin.

50
Q

In animals, what is retinal combined with to form the photoreceptors of the eye?

A

Opsin.

51
Q

What happens when retinal absorbs a photon of light?

A

Rhodopsin changes conformation to photoexcited rhodopsin and a cascade of proteins amplifies the signal.

52
Q

What happens after rhodopsin becomes photoexcited rhodopsin?

A

Photoexcited rhodopsin activates a G-protein, called transducin, which activates the enzyme phosphodiesterase (PDE)