Unit 1 (Chapters 1 -3) Flashcards
Responds while a subject is watching another person complete a task and reacting as if they are completing it
- May be involved in determining the “why” of actions
- Learning from others while not directly experiencing
Mirror neurons
Visual cortex –> Parietal lobe
- dorsal
- action pathway
Describe the “where pathway”
Visual cortex –> Temporal lobe
- ventral
- perception pathway
Describe the what pathway
Determining the location of an object
What is the function of the “where pathway”
Determining the identity of an object
What is the function of the “what pathway”?
One’s estimate of the probability of a given outcome is influenced by 2 factors
1) prior probability
2) Likelihood of a given outcome
Bayesian Inference
Knowledge of what a given scene ordinarily contains
Scene Schema
Characteristics associated with functions carried out in different types of scenes.
Semantic regularities
We assume light comes from above
- Shadows affect our light perception
Light-from-above assumption
We perceive verticals and horizontals more easily than other orienations
Oblique effect
We perceive the world in a way that “most likely” makes sense based on past experience
Likelihood principle (Probabilistic Processing)
Speech segmentation studies using 8-month-olds.
- Infants pay more attention to novel stimuli rather than familiar stimuli
What was the study of transitional probabilities
Knowing which sound will likely follow another in a word
Transitional probablilities
The ability to tell when one word ends and another begins
Speech segmentation
Blue and red rectangles
- Image usually interpreted as the blue rectangle being in front of a red rectangle.
Helmhotz’s unconscious inference
Similar things appear grouped together
- Example: Dots in the shape of a square
Principle of similarity
Every stimulus pattern is seen so the structure is as simple as possible
- Example: Olympic Rings
Law of pragnaz/Simplicity
Lines tend to be seen as following the smoothest path
- Example: Rope
Principle of good continuation
Increase in firing when signal hits the center; decrease in firing when signal hits the sides (or vice versa)
Bar detectors
Increase in firing when the signal hits one side of the cell; decrease in firing on the other side of the cell
Edge detectors
Light falls on surrounding= increase in rate of firing
Light falls on center= decrease in rate of firing
Off-On cells
Light falls on center= increase in rate of firing
Light falls on surrounding area= decrease in rate of firing
On-Off cells
Concentration of cones
- Functions: Fine detail & directing attention
Fovea
Black and white, night vision
Rods
Color and Acuity (sharpness of detail)
Cones
People construct perceptions using information based on expectations
Top-down processing
Data-driven & relatively slow
- Infants use this
Direct perception Theories
- Relies on prior experiences for processing
- Fast process
Constructive perception theories
- Perception comes from stimuli in our environment
- Environment provides “data” for processing
- Parts are identified and put together to process
- Involve gestalt principles
Bottom-up processing
The task of determining the object responsible for a particular image on the retina
- Information collected by the retina could differ from reality (blurred or hidden objects)
Inverse projection problem
Experience resulting from stimulation of the senses
- The brain making an “educated guess” about what is happening in the surrounding world
Perception
Brain function that occurs when it’s at rest
Default Mode Network
How groups of neurons within the connectome function in relationships of cognition
- Determined by the amount of correlated neural activity in 2 brain areas
- Example: Motor and somatosensory are correlated
Functional connectivity (Correlated Neural Activity)
The brains “wiring diagram” created by axons that connect brain areas
Structural connectivity (Connectome)
Responds specifically to pictures of bodies & parts of bodies
Extrastriate body area (EBA)
Responds directly to places a person’s been
- Example of double dissociation
Parahippocampal place area (PPA)
Responds specifically to faces
- Damage here causes prosopagnosia (inability to recognize faces)
Fusiform face area (FFA)
Brain damage causes a loss in a particular function
Simple dissociation
Damage to one part of the brain causes function A to be absent while function B is present and vice versa
Double dissociation
Neurons that respond best to a specific stimulus
- lines, angles, edges, movement.
- oblique effect studies with kittens
Feature detectors
Structure of the brain changes with experience/environment
Experience-dependent plasticity
A system that creates representations of the world
Mind
Active potential sends a signal to other neurons, Resting potential sends nothing
What is the difference between resting potential and active potential?
Don’t send any signals to other neurons
-70 microvolts in the inside of the neuron compared to the outside
Resting potential
How a neuron sends a signal to the next neuron
+40 microvolts inside the neuron compared to outside the neuron
Action potential
Responds to dendrites of other cells
Terminal buttons
Long shaft that transmits electrical signal through the neuron
Axon
Extensions connected to cell body that receive info from other neurons
Dendrites
Connective area from one cell to the next
- Where communication occurs
Synapse
Contains the mechanisms that keep the cell alive
Cell body (Soma)
Cells specialized to create, receive, and transmit information all across the body
Neurons
Individual nerve cells transmit signals and are not continuously linked
- Established by research done with golgi staining
Neuron doctrine
Neurons are a continuous communication of signals
Nerve net theory
Study of the physiological basis of cognition
Cognitive Neuroscience
1) Humans have limited capacity for information processes
2) Humans are active information processors
3) Mental processes can be studied scientifically
4) Time and accuracy measures allow reasonable inferences
5) Human processing is computational
6) Humans use a symbol-manipulating system
Tenets of Cognitive Research
Off-On cells
Light falls on surrounding= decrease in rate of firing
Light alls on center= decrease in rate of firing
Constructive perception theory
- Replies on prior experiences for processing
- Fast process
- top-down
Factual memory
Semantic memory
Mind
A system that creates representations of the world
Who taught the first psychology course at Harvard?
William James
Information Processing Approach
Claims that the operations of the mind occur in stages; associated with insights associated with computers
What speeds up the reaction on the axon?
Myelin Sheath
Default Mode Network
Brain function that occurs when it’s at rest
The mental process
- Perception, memory, attention
Cognition
What discovery caused the emergence of cognitive neuroscience?
The fMRI
What is “shaping”?
Linking a sequence of simple behaviors to achieve a more complex behavior
Who developed the flow diagram?
-Attention model; mimicked computer processes
Daniel Broadbent
How was the oblique effect studied?
Studied visual stimuli in kittens.
- Kittens were exposed to vertical stimuli only, resulting in the kittens being unable to see diagonal and horizontal stimuli.
fMRI
- Relies on magnetic properties of blood
- No radiation
- Assesses blood flow
- More detailed than PET
Fusiform face area (FFA)
Responds specifically to faces
- Damage here causes prosopagnosia (inability to recognize faces)
Electrophysiology
Used to study electrical response of the nervous system
Which photoreceptor is light sensitive?
Rods
Top-down processing
People construct perceptions using information based on expectations
Who establishes the first scientific psychology lab?
Wilhem Wundt
Oblique effect
We perceive verticals and horizontals more easily than other orienations
- Measures blood flow to the brain
- Uses radiation (can be harmful)
- Shows what part of the brain is most active
PET scan
PET scan
- Measures blood flow to the brain
- Uses radiation (can be harmful)
- Shows what part of the brain is most active
What was the result of Ebbinghaus’s memory experiment?
Determined that memory begins to fade after 2 days
What was the study of transitional probabilities
Speech segmentation studies using 8-month-olds.
- Infants pay more attention to novel stimuli rather than familiar stimuli
Information Theory
Claims that the brain has limited capacity; similar to a computer
Artificial Intellegence
Making a machine behave in ways that a human would.
What is the function of the “where pathway”
- dorsal & action pathway
Determining the location of an object
Semantic regularities
Characteristics associated with functions carried out in different types of scenes.
Perception
Experience resulting from stimulation of the senses
- The brain making an “educated guess” about what is happening in the surrounding world
What is an example of the bayesian inference?
“I have a cough, I must be coming down with a cold”
Neuron doctrine
Individual nerve cells transmit signals and are not continuously linked
- Established by research done with golgi staining
Light-from-above assumption
We assume light comes from above
- Shadows affect our light perception
Little Albert was placed in a room. A white rat was placed in the room and a loud noise was played. Albert began to be conditioned to be afraid of any white object.
- Behaviorist approach
What was the context of the “Little Albert” experiment?
Where is the “where pathway” (Dorsal pathway) located?
Upper part of the brain
Choice reaction task
A person’s response to a stimulus when other stimuli are present
Sensory Memory
Less than a second
Helmhotz’s unconscious inference
Blue and red rectangles
- Image usually interpreted as the blue rectangle being in front of a red rectangle.
Describe operant conditioning
The process of shaping behavior through rewards and punishment
Long-term memory
Long periods of time
Neuropsychology
Studies behavior of people with and without brain damage
Perception pathway
Visual cortex –> Temporal lobe
- “What pathway”
Overall experience is determined by combining basic elements of experiments called sensations
Structuralism
Long periods of time
Long-term memory
Analytic Introspection
Participants are trained to describe experiences and thoughts in response to stimuli
Making a machine behave in ways that a human would.
Artificial Intellegence
Parahippocampal place area (PPA)
Responds directly to places a person’s been
- Example of double dissociation
Studies behavior of people with and without brain damage
Neuropsychology
Rods
Black and white, night vision
Who conducted the first cognitive psychology experiment?
Donders
Cell body (Soma)
Contains the mechanisms that keep the cell alive
Terminal buttons
At the end of the axon; releases neurotransmitters into the synapse
Feature detectors
Neurons that respond best to a specific stimulus
Dynamics of cognition
The flow and activity across the brain’s functional networks change based on conditions
How does a behaviorist believe children learn language?
- Children learned speech through operant conditioning
- Children imitate speech they hear
- Correct speech is awarded
- Used “shaping”
Functional connectivity (Correlated Neural Activity)
How groups of neurons within the connectome function in relationships of cognition
- Determined by the amount of correlated neural activity in 2 brain areas
- Example: Motro and somatosensory are correlated
What happens if the Wernicke’s area is damaged?
Language comprehension/understanding is impaired
Structural connectivity (Connectome)
The brains “wiring diagram” created by axons that connect brain areas
- more unique than a person’s fingerprint
Linking a sequence of simple behaviors to achieve a more complex behavior
What is “shaping”?
Direct perception Theories
Data-driven & relatively slow
- Infants use this
- bottom up
What was the context of the “Little Albert” experiment?
Little Albert was placed in a room. A white rat was placed in the room and a loud noise was played. Albert began to be conditioned to be afraid of any white object.
- Behaviorist approach
What was Ebbinghaus’s experiment?
Studied memory and forgetting by studying a list of nonsense syllables
Synapse
Connective gap between neurons
- Where communication (action potential) occurs
Life events, experiences.
Episodic Memory
Double dissociation
Damage to one part of the brain causes function A to be absent while function B is present and vice versa
Extrastriate body area (EBA)
Responds specifically to pictures of bodies & parts of bodies
Used to study electrical response of the nervous system
Electrophysiology
Action potential
How a neuron sends a signal to the next neuron
+40 microvolts inside the neuron compared to outside the neuron
A person’s response to a single stimulus
Simple reaction time task
Brain Imaging
Shows brain activity as it reacts to different cognitive activity
What were some of Chomsky’s problems with behaviorism relating to language?
- The problem of serial order.
- Behaviorism underrated the novelty, productivity, and complexity of human language
Speech segmentation
The ability to tell when one word ends and another begins
On-Off cells
Light falls on center= increase in rate of firing
Light falls on surrounding area= decrease in rate of firing
Short-term memory
A couple seconds
Physical actions (remembering how to ride a bike)
Procedural memory
Claims that the operations of the mind occur in stages; associated with insights associated with computers
Information Processing Approach
- Relies on magnetic properties of blood
- No radiation
- Assesses blood flow
- More detailed than PET
fMRI
Transitional probablilities
Knowing which sound will likely follow another in a word
Scene Schema
Knowledge of what a given scene ordinarily contains
Bottom-up processing
- Perception comes from stimuli in our environment
- Environment provides “data” for processing
- Parts are identified and put together to process
- Involve gestalt principles
How many rods do we have?
120mil
Experience-dependent plasticity
Structure of the brain changes with experience/environment
Principle of similarity
Similar things appear grouped together
- Example: Dots in the shape of a square
How are action potentials measured?
Rate of firing
- Low intensity stimulus: slow firing
- High intensity stimulus: fast firing
What part of the brain is responsible for most cognitive function?
Cerebral Cortex
Which photoreceptor is light INsensitive?
Cones
Edge detectors
Increase in firing when the signal hits one side of the cell; decrease in firing on the other side of the cell
What is the difference between resting potential and active potential?
Active potential sends a signal to other neurons, Resting potential sends nothing
Cognitive Psychology
The scientific study of the mind
What are the primary receiving areas for senses?
Occipital lobe, Parietal lobe, Temporal lobe, Frontal lobe
Procedural memory
Physical actions (remembering how to ride a bike)
Where is the “what pathway” (Ventral pathway) located?
Lower part of the brain
Axon
Long shaft that transmits electrical signal through the neuron
Who established cognitive psychology as its own science?
Wilhem Wundt
Reaction time
The interval between stimulus presentation and the person’s response
What are the two photoreceptors?
Cones and rods
Bayesian Inference
One’s estimate of the probability of a given outcome is influenced by 2 factors
1) prior probability
2) Likelihood of a given outcome
What happens if the Broca’s area is damaged?
Language production/speech is impaired
What happens if the temporal lobe is damaged?
There will be problems with recognizing and identifying objects
The process of shaping behavior through rewards and punishment
Describe operant conditioning
What is an example of a scene schema?
Going into a new fast food restaurant and knowing what to expect.
Semantic memory
Factual memory
What are the shadowing studies and who conducted them?
- The shadowing studies presented message A in one ear and message B in the right ear
- Despite both messages being played at the same time, subjects were able to understand details of message A
- Colin Cherry
What happens if the parietal lobe is damaged?
There will be problems with spatial reasoning
What was Donder’s experiment?
He measured how long it takes a person to make a decision
- Reaction time, simple/choice task
Mirror neurons
Responds while a subject is watching another person complete a task and reacting as if they are completing it
- May be involved in determining the “why” of actions
- Learning from others while not directly experiencing
Cognition
The mental process
- Perception, memory, attention
Nerve net theory
Neurons are a continuous communication of signals
Less than a second
Sensory Memory
Fovea
Concentration of cones
- Functions: Fine detail & directing attention
What were the periods where behaviorism was dominant?
1940’s-1960s
Simple dissociation
Brain damage causes a loss in a particular function
Resting potential
Don’t send any signals to other neurons
-70 microvolts in the inside of the neuron compared to the outside
Bar detectors
Increase in firing when signal hits the center; decrease in firing when signal hits the sides (or vice versa)
Principle of good continuation
Lines tend to be seen as following the smoothest path
- Example: Rope
What did John Watson note as the two problems with the introspection method?
- Extremely variable results per person.
- Results were difficult to verify because they were interpreted in terms of invisible mental processes.
What is the function of the “what pathway”?
Determining the identity of an object
Claims that the brain has limited capacity; similar to a computer
Information Theory
Six common networks:
Visual
Somato-Motor
Dorsal Attention
Executive Control
Salience
Default Mode
Visual: vision and visual perception
Somato-Motor: movement and touch
Dorsal Attention: Attention to visual images and spatial environment
Executive Control: High-level cognitive tasks and working memory
Salience: Attending to survival-related events
Default Mode: Mind wandering, regulation
What did John Watson specialize in?
Behaviorism
What are the three types of long-term memory?
Episodic, Semantic, Procedural
Action pathway
Visual cortex –> Parietal lobe
- ‘Where pathway”
- Dorsal
What was the time difference between the simple rt task and the choice rt task?
The choice rt task took 1/10th of a second longer than the simple rt task
Participants are trained to describe experiences and thoughts in response to stimuli
Analytic Introspection
Who wrote the first psychology textbook?
William James
Shows brain activity as it reacts to different cognitive activity
Brain Imaging
The scientific study of the mind
Cognitive Psychology
How many cones do we have?
6mil
- Reduces down to 1.2mil ganglion cells
Cognitive Neuroscience
Study of the physiological basis of cognition
Where is our blind spot?
Where the optic nerve begins and has no photoreceptors
The interval between stimulus presentation and the person’s response
Reaction time
Cones
Color and Acuity (sharpness of detail)
Law of pragnaz
Every stimulus pattern is seen so the structure is as simple as possible
- Example: Olympic Rings
We perceive the world in a way that “most likely” makes sense based on past experience
Likelihood principle (Probablistic proecessing)
Simple reaction time task
A person’s response to a single stimulus
A couple seconds
Short-term memory
A person’s response to a stimulus when other stimuli are present
Choice reaction task
The task of determining the object responsible for a particular image on the retina
- Information collected by the retina could differ from reality (blurred or hidden objects)
Inverse projection problem
Life events, experiences.
Episodic Memory
Extensions connected to cell body that receive info from other neurons
Dendrites
Cells specialized to create, receive, and transmit information all across the body
Neurons
Determined that memory begins to fade after 2 days
What was the result of Ebbinghaus’s memory experiment?
The ability to recognize an object from different viewpoints
Viewpoint Invariance
Two types of cells in the primary visual cortex
Bar and Edge detectors
nerves work together in pods
neural circuit
