Unit 1: Cells & Tissues Flashcards
1
Q
homeostasis definition
A
regulating internal levels based off of our external environment
2
Q
hierarchy of the body (largest to smallest)
A
- organism (human)
- body system
- organ
- tissue
- cell
- chemical
3
Q
tissue types
A
- epithelial
- connective
- muscle
- nerve
4
Q
excitable tissue definition
A
tissues with an action potential
5
Q
excitable tissue types
A
- neurons
- muscle cells
6
Q
muscle cell types
A
- skeletal muscle cell
- smooth muscle cell
- cardiac muscle cell
7
Q
epithelial tissue structure
A
- cells close together
- minimal intercellular substance
- no nerves or blood vessels
8
Q
intracellular definition
A
inside cell
9
Q
intercellular definition
A
in between cells
10
Q
epithelial tissue function
A
- regulate passage of material
- trap foreign substance
11
Q
functional types of epithelial tissue
A
- lining
- glandular
12
Q
gland types
A
- exocrine
- endocrine
13
Q
exocrine gland
A
connects to surface epithelium with ducts
14
Q
endocrine gland
A
- ductless
- secrete into blood
15
Q
exocrine gland example
A
saliva
16
Q
endocrine gland example
A
thyroid gland/hormone
17
Q
connective tissue
A
- structure and metabolic support
- cells, fibers, and matrix
18
Q
connective tissue example
A
blood, bone, cartilage
19
Q
bone
A
- calcium matrix
- hydroxyapatite
- support, rigid, force transmission
20
Q
outside of bone
A
fibrous periosteum
21
Q
cavity of bone
A
marrow for blood production
22
Q
muscle purpose
A
- contraction and relax
- force generation
- movement
- posture
23
Q
muscle purpose side effect
A
generates heat
24
Q
skeletal muscle
A
- contractile
- striations
- single innervation (1 nerve ending per fiber but 1 neuron supplies many fibers)
- all or none contraction
25
which muscles are involuntary
- smooth
- cardiac
26
cardiac muscle
- continuous, rhythmic
- cells in sync 24/7
27
how is the electric signal propagated through the heart
- gap junctions
- specialised muscle cells
28
smooth muscle types
- multi-unit
- single-unit
29
multi-unit smooth muscle
- each cell innervated
- variable force
30
single-unit smooth muscle
- greater diffusion distance
- cells coupled
- synchronous contraction
31
nervous tissue types
- central
- peripheral
32
central nervous tissue
- brain
- spinal cord
33
peripheral nervous tissue
input/output to gut, skin, muscle
34
nervous tissue function
- information in
- processing/integration
- information out
35
neuron parts
- cell body
- nerve fibers
- nerve terminals
36
do males or females have a higher red blood cell concentration and why
- men
- testosterone contributes to RBC production
37
negative feedback
- counteracts the change in the controlled variable
- predominant feedback
38
negative feedback components
- controlled variable
- sensor
- integrator
- effector
- compensatory response
39
negative feedback example
when cold, shiver to produce heat
40
positive feedback
reinforces the change in the controlled variable
41
positive feedback example
- contractions during birth
- clotting
42
cells purpose
- exchange materials (O2 for CO2)
- perform chemical reactions
- synthesize cellular components
- sense and respond to change
- reproduce
43
cell definition
fundamental unit of life
44
plasma membrane purpose
- separates inside and outside of the cell
- controls the passage of materials
- has proteins and molecules
45
plasma membrane parts
- phosphate head (hydrophilic)
- phosphate tail (hydrophobic)
- cytosol (intracellular fluid)
46
nucleus job
contains dna
47
nucleolus job
produce and assemble the cell's ribosomes
48
endoplasmic reticulum membrane
- encloses space
- continuous with nuclear envelope
49
endoplasmic reticulum types
- smooth er
- rough er
50
is rough or smooth er studded with ribosomes
rough
51
rough er job
protein synthesis
52
smooth er job
produce and store lipids, calcium
53
golgi apparatus job
- process and package molecules into vesicles for transport
54
vesicles
membrane bound sphere
55
mitochondria job
- energy production
- generate atp
56
protein roles within cell
enzyme, signal, structure
57
protein roles cell membrane
transport
58
protein role outside cell
- digest enzyme
- hormone
59
protein synthesis
long line of amino acids
60
cytoskeleton definition
dynamic array of filaments
61
cytoskeleton purpose
- confer shape
- allow movement
62
cytoskeleton parts
- microfilaments
- intermediate filaments
- microtubules
63
blood % of total body weight
8%
64
3 types of specialized cellular elements of blood
- erythrocytes (RBC)
- leukocytes (WBC)
- platelets
65
erythrocytes
- RBC
- O2 transport
- hemoglobin
66
leukocytes
- WBC
- immune system
67
platelets
- cell fragments that lack a nucleus
- important in hematosis
- release serotonin to vasoconstrict and reduce blood flow to clot area
- secrete growth factors to maintain integrity of blood vessel wall
- 5-9 day life span, removed from circulation by tissue macrophages
68
plasma and hematocrit %
55% plasma and 45% hematocrit
69
hematocrit
packed cell volume
70
buffy coat
platelets and leukocytes
71
composition of plasma
- water (90%)
- electrolytes
- nutrients, waste, gas, hormones
- plasma proteins
72
plasma water function
- transport medium
- carries heat
73
plasma electrolytes function
- membrane excitability
- osmotic distribution of fluid between ECF and ICF
- buffer pH change
74
plasma nutrients, wastes, gases, hormones function
- transported in blood
- CO2 plays a role in acid-base balance
75
plasma protein % of blood
6-8%
76
types of plasma proteins
- albumins
- globulins
- fibrinogen
77
albumins function
- contribute to the colloid osmotic pressure
- transport molecules that are poorly soluble in plasma
78
most abundant plasma protein
albumin
79
globulins subclasses
- a/B
- a
- y
80
a/B globulins function
- transport molecules
- blood clotting factors
81
a globulins function
- inactive precursors protein
- converted to angiotensin
82
y globulins function
immunity antibodies
83
fibrinogen function
- clotting factor
- converted to fibrin
84
blood vessels _________ when cold to preserve heat
constrict
85
what produces the plasma proteins
- the liver
- except y globulins which are produced by lymphocytes
86
serum definition
plasma from which fibrinogen and other clotting proteins have been removed
87
in centrifuged blood, the liquid portion is ______
serum
88
blood pH
7.35-7.45 (alkaline)
89
composition of erythrocytes
- lack nuclei, mitochondria, and ribosomes
- biconcave
90
life cycle of RBC
120 days
91
hemopoiesis definition
production of blood cells
92
progressive differentiation
- change from relatively undifferentiated stem cell
- gradual acquisition of specific characteristics of end cell
93
stem cell becomes either
a myeloid or lymphoid
94
anemia definition
a below normal O2-carrying capacity of the blood
95
possible causes of anemia
- iron deficiency
- haemolysis
- reduced RBC production
- increased RBC loss
96
haemolysis definition
destruction of rbc
97
types of anemia
- nutritional anemia
- pernicious anemia
- aplastic anemia
- renal anemia
- hemorrhagic anemia
- hemolytic anemia
98
nutritional anemia
iron deficiency, can't make sufficient hemoglobin
99
pernicious anemia
inability to absorb vitamin B12
100
aplastic anemia
failure of bone marrow to produce enough RBC even though all the things necessary are present
101
renal anemia
- reduced RBC production
- impaired EPO synthesis due to kidney disease
102
hemorrhagic anemia
caused by losing a lot of blood
103
hemolytic anemia
- rupture of RBCs
- caused by malaria and sickle cell disease
104
thrombopoietin
- hormone produced by liver
- increases number of megakaryocytes and platelet production
105
haemostasis definition
process of keeping blood within a damaged blood vessel
106
opposite of hemorrhage
haemostasis
107
2 major steps of haemostasis
- formation of a platelet plug
- blood clotting
108
formation of the platelet plug
- platelets aggregate on contact with exposed collagen in damaged wall of the vessel
- platelets release ADP
- surface of nearby circulating platelets become sticky
- adhere to first layer of aggregated platelets
109
blood clotting
- reinforces platelet plug and converts blood in vicinity into a non-flowing gel
- clotting factors aways present in blood plasma in inactive precursor form
- covert fibrinogen into fibrin
110
2 pathways of blood clotting
- extrinsic
- intrinsic
111
clot dissolution
- plasmin dissolves clots
- plasmin is produced from plasminogen by clotting factors
- phagocytic WBCs remove waste products of clot dissolution
112
clot prevention
- tissue plasminogen activator
- prevents inappropriate clot formation
- used clinically as a clot buster
113
thrombomodulin
- binds thrombin (no fibrinogen conversion)
- activates protein c (anticoagulent)
114
thrombus
abnormal intravascular clot attached to a vessel wall
115
emboli
free-floating clots
116
factors that can cause thromboembolism
- roughened vessel surfaces associated with atherosclerosis
- clotting/anti-clotting system imbalances
- slow-moving blood
- release of tissue thromboplastin into blood from traumatized tissue
117
hemophilia
excessive bleeding caused by a factor of the clotting cascade
118
body fluid importance
primary transport system between cells
119
do females have more or less total body water and why
less, more fat
120
what % of body mass is total body water
60
121
total body water is made of (w/ L)
intracellular fluid (28 L) + extracellular fluid (14 L)
122
extracellular fluid is made of (w/ L)
plasma (3 L) + interstitial fluid (11 L)
123
water can move _______ fluid compartments
between
124
intracellular/interstitial fluid barriers
- cell membrane boundary
- selectively permeable ion pumps
125
interstitial fluid/plasma barriers
- capillary wall boundary
- permeable to small molecules
126
interstitial fluid composition
Na+ high
Cl- high
K+ low
127
intracellular fluid composition
Na+ low (pump)
Cl- low
K+ high (pump)
128
osmosis
- water moves from lower to higher solute concentration
- cell membrane is permeable to water but not solute
- passive
129
tonicity
effect of solute concentration on cell volume
130
hypotonic solution
cell gains water, swells
131
hypertonic solution
cell loses water, shrinks
132
fluid replacement (hemorrhage)
- replace blood with isotonic saline (NaCl)
- no change in cell volume
133
fluid replacement (rehydration salts)
replace water and ions
134
lymphatic system
returns lymph to the cardiovascular system
135
systemic capillaries
allow exchange of materials between blood and body tissues
136
starling's law
- capillary wall is very permeable
- bulk flow of water and solutes
- rapid plasma and interstitial fluid interchange
- plasma is carefully regulated
137
interstitial fluid is the ...
environment for all cells
138
normal daily inputs
- ingestion (fluid and food)
- metabolism
139
normal daily outputs
- gut
- urine
- breathing/skin
- sweating
140
which normal daily inputs/outputs are used to regulate fluid volume
- fluid
- urine
141
the immune system
a network of cells and tissues that
- defend the body against invading pathogens
- destroys abnormal/mutant cells within the body
- removes worn-out cells
142
harmful effects of the immune system
- allergies/autoimmune disease
- tissue rejection
143
infection-causing organisms
- bacteria
- parasite
- fungus
- virus
144
tissue immune system
primary and secondary lymphoid organs
145
cells immune system
- lymphocytes
- granulocytes
- monocytes/macrophages
- dendritic cells
- natural killer cells
146
soluble mediators immune system
- cytokines and chemokines
- complement proteins
147
central (primary) lymphoid tissues
- bone marrow (site of B cell development)
- thymus (site of T cell development)
148
peripheral (secondary) lymphoid tissue
- spleen
- lymph nodes
- gut associated lymphoid tissue
- adenoids
- appendix
- tonsils
149
neutrophils
- destroy bacteria by phagocytosis
- clean up debris
- first defenders on scene of bacterial invasion
150
most abundant leukocyte
neutrophil
151
an increase in eosinophilia is associated with:
- allergic conditions (asthma, hay fever)
- internal parasite infections (attach to worm and secrete substances to kill it
152
eosinophilia
increase in circulating eosinophils
153
monocytes
- emerge from bone marrow while immature and circulate before settling down in various tissues
- become professional phagocytes
- act as antigen presenting cells
154
monocytes mature and enlarge to become...
macrophages
155
nonspecific (innate) immunity and examples
- initial and immediate response against invasion by pathogens
- phagocytosis, inflammation
156
nonspecific (innate) immunity main mechanisms
- physical barriers (skin, mucous membranes)
- inflammation and phagocytosis
- interferon, NK cells
- complement
157
specific (adaptive) immunity
- comes after nonspecific responses
- respond to specific pathogens on 2nd or later exposure
158
inflammatory response signs
- redness
- heat
- swelling
- pain
159
inflammatory response results
- destroys or inactivates invaders
- removes debris
- prepares for healing and repair
160
stages of phagocytosis
- attachment
- internalisation (0.1 sec)
- degradation
- exocytosis
161
interferon
- a, B, y
- cytokine released by virus-infected cells
- protects other cells from any virus
- induces expression of enzymes that prevent viral replication
162
interferon anti-cancer effects
- slows cell division
- enhances action of NK cells and cytotoxic T cells
163
natural killer cells
- attack virus-infected cells
- causes lysis via release of perforins
164
complement system
- a number of small proteins that normally circulate as inactive precursors in the blood
- activation results in the formation of a cell-killing membrane attack complex
- induces lysis of invading microorganisms
- complements the ability of other immune mechanisms to clear pathogens
165
specificity (specific immunity)
- lymphocytes (B and T cells) bind and respond to foreign molecules (antigens) via antigen receptors
- antibody-antigen interactions are specific
166
diversity (specific immunity)
the body possesses lymphocytes that recognize and respond to antigens
167
memory (specific immunity)
- 1st exposure: generates lymphocytes and memory cells
- next exposure: memory cells react faster and with stronger response
168
self-tolerance (specific immunity)
lymphocytes distinguish normal antigens from foreign material
169
2 types of lymphocytes
- B lymphocytes (B cells)
- T lymphocytes (T cells)
170
B lymphocytes (B cells)
- produce antibodies that circulate in the blood)
- defend against bacteria toxins and viruses in body fluids
- antibody-mediated or humoral immunity
171
T lymphocytes (T cells)
- do not produce antibodies
- directly destroy specific target cells by releasing chemicals that punch holes in the victim cell
- target cells include body cells invaded by viruses and cancer cells
172
which part of specific immunity failing results in an autoimmune disease
- self-tolerance
- attack normal healthy cells
173
how do antibodies function
- neutralization (block the activity of a pathogen)
- agglutination (multiple pathogens are aggregated by antibody molecules)
- opsonization (bound pathogens are more efficiently engulfed by phagocytes)
- complement activation (antibodies activate lysis of the cell)
- enhanced NK cell activity (abnormal body cells are lysed)
174
lysis definition
- rupture of the cell membrane
- destroying a cell
175
T cell types
- helper
- cytotoxic
176
helper T cells
- activated by MHC on antigen-presenting cells
- secrete cytokines that enhance the activity of cytotoxic T cells (enhance phagocytosis)
- stimulate development of B cells into plasma cells (indirect action)
177
cytotoxic T cells
- activated by MHC on virus-infected cell
- kill infected cells by lysis
178
immune disorders
- rheumatoid arthritis
- multiple sclerosis
179
rheumatoid arthritis symptoms
inflammation and damage to cartilage and bone of joints
180
multiple sclerosis cause and symptoms
- T cells attack myelin
- blurred vision
- muscle weakness
- ataxia (co-ordination, balance, and speech difficulty)
181
AIDS is caused by ...
Human Immunodefiency Virus (HIV)
182
what does HIV do
- binds to the surface of helper T cells and it's DNA/RNA enters the cell
- HIV uses cell to make copies of itself
- destroys helper T cells
- immune response weakens and other diseases develop
183
passive diffusion
- molecules diffuse from higher concentration to lower concentration
- down concentration gradient
184
passive diffusion is proportional to
- size of gradient
- membrane surface area
- membrane permeability (high lipid solubility, small molecules, barrier thickness)
- O2, CO2, fatty acids, steroid hormones
185
passive facilitated diffusion
- conformational carrier molecules in membrane
- binding leads to conformational change
186
passive facilitated diffusion rate depends on
- number of carriers in the membrane
- affinity
- concentration of transported substance
187
affinity definition
the strength of the attaction between two substances
188
passive diffusion through ion channels
- both sides open
- specific to ions
- some have binding sites
- depends on electrochemical gradient
189
passive transport types
- diffusion
- facilitated diffusion
- diffusion through ion channels
190
passive transport meaning
no ATP used
191
active transport meaning
- ATP used
- opposes electrochemical gradient
192
active transport types
- primary active transport (uses energy directly)
- secondary active transport (uses a gradient created by active transport)
193
sodium pump (Na+, K+, ATPase)
- phosphorylation (leads to: conformation change, change in affinity)
- one ATP used per cycle
- 3:2 ratio of Na+ out to K+ in
- crucial for ICF/IF difference
194
secondary active transport types
- cotransport
- countertransport
195
secondary active transport - cotransport
- Na+ moves into cell down gradient
- releases energy used for glucose co-transport against gradient
196
secondary active transport - countertransport
Na+ and H+ go in opposite directions
197
membrane potential
- plasma membrane of all living cells has a membrane potential
- separation of opposite charges
- due to difference in concentration and permeability of key ions
198
electrical driving force
- separation of charge across a membrane
- alignment of opposed charges
199
charged particles of electrical driving force
- anions (-ve)
- cations (+ve)
200
is extracellular fluid net positive or negative
positive
201
is intracellular fluid net positive or negative
negative
202
electrical driving force depends on
- size of membrane potential
- quantity of charge
203
typical membrane potential
-70 mV
204
net movement depends on...
the balance of all forces
205
membrane potential consequences of Na+, K+, ATPase pump
- membrane potential (-50-90 mV)
- balance between electrical and chemical (diffusional) forces
206
membrane potential significance
- potential energy (secondary active transport, action potential)
- uses 20% of resting (basal) metabolic rate
207
resting (basal) metabolic rate definition
the number of calories you burn as your body performs basic (basal) life-sustaining function
