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physiology allied health > Unit 1: Cells & Tissues > Flashcards

Unit 1: Cells & Tissues Flashcards

1
Q

homeostasis definition

A

regulating internal levels based off of our external environment

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2
Q

hierarchy of the body (largest to smallest)

A
  • organism (human)
  • body system
  • organ
  • tissue
  • cell
  • chemical
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3
Q

tissue types

A
  • epithelial
  • connective
  • muscle
  • nerve
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4
Q

excitable tissue definition

A

tissues with an action potential

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5
Q

excitable tissue types

A
  • neurons
  • muscle cells
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6
Q

muscle cell types

A
  • skeletal muscle cell
  • smooth muscle cell
  • cardiac muscle cell
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7
Q

epithelial tissue structure

A
  • cells close together
  • minimal intercellular substance
  • no nerves or blood vessels
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8
Q

intracellular definition

A

inside cell

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9
Q

intercellular definition

A

in between cells

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10
Q

epithelial tissue function

A
  • regulate passage of material
  • trap foreign substance
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11
Q

functional types of epithelial tissue

A
  • lining
  • glandular
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12
Q

gland types

A
  • exocrine
  • endocrine
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13
Q

exocrine gland

A

connects to surface epithelium with ducts

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14
Q

endocrine gland

A
  • ductless
  • secrete into blood
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15
Q

exocrine gland example

A

saliva

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16
Q

endocrine gland example

A

thyroid gland/hormone

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17
Q

connective tissue

A
  • structure and metabolic support
  • cells, fibers, and matrix
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18
Q

connective tissue example

A

blood, bone, cartilage

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19
Q

bone

A
  • calcium matrix
  • hydroxyapatite
  • support, rigid, force transmission
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20
Q

outside of bone

A

fibrous periosteum

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21
Q

cavity of bone

A

marrow for blood production

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22
Q

muscle purpose

A
  • contraction and relax
  • force generation
  • movement
  • posture
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23
Q

muscle purpose side effect

A

generates heat

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24
Q

skeletal muscle

A
  • contractile
  • striations
  • single innervation (1 nerve ending per fiber but 1 neuron supplies many fibers)
  • all or none contraction
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25
Q

which muscles are involuntary

A
  • smooth
  • cardiac
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26
Q

cardiac muscle

A
  • continuous, rhythmic
  • cells in sync 24/7
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27
Q

how is the electric signal propagated through the heart

A
  • gap junctions
  • specialised muscle cells
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28
Q

smooth muscle types

A
  • multi-unit
  • single-unit
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29
Q

multi-unit smooth muscle

A
  • each cell innervated
  • variable force
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30
Q

single-unit smooth muscle

A
  • greater diffusion distance
  • cells coupled
  • synchronous contraction
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31
Q

nervous tissue types

A
  • central
  • peripheral
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32
Q

central nervous tissue

A
  • brain
  • spinal cord
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33
Q

peripheral nervous tissue

A

input/output to gut, skin, muscle

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34
Q

nervous tissue function

A
  • information in
  • processing/integration
  • information out
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35
Q

neuron parts

A
  • cell body
  • nerve fibers
  • nerve terminals
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36
Q

do males or females have a higher red blood cell concentration and why

A
  • men
  • testosterone contributes to RBC production
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37
Q

negative feedback

A
  • counteracts the change in the controlled variable
  • predominant feedback
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38
Q

negative feedback components

A
  • controlled variable
  • sensor
  • integrator
  • effector
  • compensatory response
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39
Q

negative feedback example

A

when cold, shiver to produce heat

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40
Q

positive feedback

A

reinforces the change in the controlled variable

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41
Q

positive feedback example

A
  • contractions during birth
  • clotting
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42
Q

cells purpose

A
  • exchange materials (O2 for CO2)
  • perform chemical reactions
  • synthesize cellular components
  • sense and respond to change
  • reproduce
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43
Q

cell definition

A

fundamental unit of life

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44
Q

plasma membrane purpose

A
  • separates inside and outside of the cell
  • controls the passage of materials
  • has proteins and molecules
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45
Q

plasma membrane parts

A
  • phosphate head (hydrophilic)
  • phosphate tail (hydrophobic)
  • cytosol (intracellular fluid)
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46
Q

nucleus job

A

contains dna

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47
Q

nucleolus job

A

produce and assemble the cell’s ribosomes

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48
Q

endoplasmic reticulum membrane

A
  • encloses space
  • continuous with nuclear envelope
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49
Q

endoplasmic reticulum types

A
  • smooth er
  • rough er
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50
Q

is rough or smooth er studded with ribosomes

A

rough

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51
Q

rough er job

A

protein synthesis

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52
Q

smooth er job

A

produce and store lipids, calcium

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53
Q

golgi apparatus job

A
  • process and package molecules into vesicles for transport
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54
Q

vesicles

A

membrane bound sphere

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55
Q

mitochondria job

A
  • energy production
  • generate atp
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56
Q

protein roles within cell

A

enzyme, signal, structure

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57
Q

protein roles cell membrane

A

transport

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58
Q

protein role outside cell

A
  • digest enzyme
  • hormone
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59
Q

protein synthesis

A

long line of amino acids

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60
Q

cytoskeleton definition

A

dynamic array of filaments

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61
Q

cytoskeleton purpose

A
  • confer shape
  • allow movement
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62
Q

cytoskeleton parts

A
  • microfilaments
  • intermediate filaments
  • microtubules
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63
Q

blood % of total body weight

A

8%

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64
Q

3 types of specialized cellular elements of blood

A
  • erythrocytes (RBC)
  • leukocytes (WBC)
  • platelets
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65
Q

erythrocytes

A
  • RBC
  • O2 transport
  • hemoglobin
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66
Q

leukocytes

A
  • WBC
  • immune system
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67
Q

platelets

A
  • cell fragments that lack a nucleus
  • important in hematosis
  • release serotonin to vasoconstrict and reduce blood flow to clot area
  • secrete growth factors to maintain integrity of blood vessel wall
  • 5-9 day life span, removed from circulation by tissue macrophages
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68
Q

plasma and hematocrit %

A

55% plasma and 45% hematocrit

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69
Q

hematocrit

A

packed cell volume

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70
Q

buffy coat

A

platelets and leukocytes

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71
Q

composition of plasma

A
  • water (90%)
  • electrolytes
  • nutrients, waste, gas, hormones
  • plasma proteins
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72
Q

plasma water function

A
  • transport medium
  • carries heat
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73
Q

plasma electrolytes function

A
  • membrane excitability
  • osmotic distribution of fluid between ECF and ICF
  • buffer pH change
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74
Q

plasma nutrients, wastes, gases, hormones function

A
  • transported in blood
  • CO2 plays a role in acid-base balance
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75
Q

plasma protein % of blood

A

6-8%

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76
Q

types of plasma proteins

A
  • albumins
  • globulins
  • fibrinogen
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77
Q

albumins function

A
  • contribute to the colloid osmotic pressure
  • transport molecules that are poorly soluble in plasma
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78
Q

most abundant plasma protein

A

albumin

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79
Q

globulins subclasses

A
  • a/B
  • a
  • y
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80
Q

a/B globulins function

A
  • transport molecules
  • blood clotting factors
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81
Q

a globulins function

A
  • inactive precursors protein
  • converted to angiotensin
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82
Q

y globulins function

A

immunity antibodies

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83
Q

fibrinogen function

A
  • clotting factor
  • converted to fibrin
84
Q

blood vessels _________ when cold to preserve heat

85
Q

what produces the plasma proteins

A
  • the liver
  • except y globulins which are produced by lymphocytes
86
Q

serum definition

A

plasma from which fibrinogen and other clotting proteins have been removed

87
Q

in centrifuged blood, the liquid portion is ______

88
Q

blood pH

A

7.35-7.45 (alkaline)

89
Q

composition of erythrocytes

A
  • lack nuclei, mitochondria, and ribosomes
  • biconcave
90
Q

life cycle of RBC

91
Q

hemopoiesis definition

A

production of blood cells

92
Q

progressive differentiation

A
  • change from relatively undifferentiated stem cell
  • gradual acquisition of specific characteristics of end cell
93
Q

stem cell becomes either

A

a myeloid or lymphoid

94
Q

anemia definition

A

a below normal O2-carrying capacity of the blood

95
Q

possible causes of anemia

A
  • iron deficiency
  • haemolysis
  • reduced RBC production
  • increased RBC loss
96
Q

haemolysis definition

A

destruction of rbc

97
Q

types of anemia

A
  • nutritional anemia
  • pernicious anemia
  • aplastic anemia
  • renal anemia
  • hemorrhagic anemia
  • hemolytic anemia
98
Q

nutritional anemia

A

iron deficiency, can’t make sufficient hemoglobin

99
Q

pernicious anemia

A

inability to absorb vitamin B12

100
Q

aplastic anemia

A

failure of bone marrow to produce enough RBC even though all the things necessary are present

101
Q

renal anemia

A
  • reduced RBC production
  • impaired EPO synthesis due to kidney disease
102
Q

hemorrhagic anemia

A

caused by losing a lot of blood

103
Q

hemolytic anemia

A
  • rupture of RBCs
  • caused by malaria and sickle cell disease
104
Q

thrombopoietin

A
  • hormone produced by liver
  • increases number of megakaryocytes and platelet production
105
Q

haemostasis definition

A

process of keeping blood within a damaged blood vessel

106
Q

opposite of hemorrhage

A

haemostasis

107
Q

2 major steps of haemostasis

A
  • formation of a platelet plug
  • blood clotting
108
Q

formation of the platelet plug

A
  • platelets aggregate on contact with exposed collagen in damaged wall of the vessel
  • platelets release ADP
  • surface of nearby circulating platelets become sticky
  • adhere to first layer of aggregated platelets
109
Q

blood clotting

A
  • reinforces platelet plug and converts blood in vicinity into a non-flowing gel
  • clotting factors aways present in blood plasma in inactive precursor form
  • covert fibrinogen into fibrin
110
Q

2 pathways of blood clotting

A
  • extrinsic
  • intrinsic
111
Q

clot dissolution

A
  • plasmin dissolves clots
  • plasmin is produced from plasminogen by clotting factors
  • phagocytic WBCs remove waste products of clot dissolution
112
Q

clot prevention

A
  • tissue plasminogen activator
  • prevents inappropriate clot formation
  • used clinically as a clot buster
113
Q

thrombomodulin

A
  • binds thrombin (no fibrinogen conversion)
  • activates protein c (anticoagulent)
114
Q

thrombus

A

abnormal intravascular clot attached to a vessel wall

115
Q

emboli

A

free-floating clots

116
Q

factors that can cause thromboembolism

A
  • roughened vessel surfaces associated with atherosclerosis
  • clotting/anti-clotting system imbalances
  • slow-moving blood
  • release of tissue thromboplastin into blood from traumatized tissue
117
Q

hemophilia

A

excessive bleeding caused by a factor of the clotting cascade

118
Q

body fluid importance

A

primary transport system between cells

119
Q

do females have more or less total body water and why

A

less, more fat

120
Q

what % of body mass is total body water

121
Q

total body water is made of (w/ L)

A

intracellular fluid (28 L) + extracellular fluid (14 L)

122
Q

extracellular fluid is made of (w/ L)

A

plasma (3 L) + interstitial fluid (11 L)

123
Q

water can move _______ fluid compartments

124
Q

intracellular/interstitial fluid barriers

A
  • cell membrane boundary
  • selectively permeable ion pumps
125
Q

interstitial fluid/plasma barriers

A
  • capillary wall boundary
  • permeable to small molecules
126
Q

interstitial fluid composition

A

Na+ high
Cl- high
K+ low

127
Q

intracellular fluid composition

A

Na+ low (pump)
Cl- low
K+ high (pump)

128
Q

osmosis

A
  • water moves from lower to higher solute concentration
  • cell membrane is permeable to water but not solute
  • passive
129
Q

tonicity

A

effect of solute concentration on cell volume

130
Q

hypotonic solution

A

cell gains water, swells

131
Q

hypertonic solution

A

cell loses water, shrinks

132
Q

fluid replacement (hemorrhage)

A
  • replace blood with isotonic saline (NaCl)
  • no change in cell volume
133
Q

fluid replacement (rehydration salts)

A

replace water and ions

134
Q

lymphatic system

A

returns lymph to the cardiovascular system

135
Q

systemic capillaries

A

allow exchange of materials between blood and body tissues

136
Q

starling’s law

A
  • capillary wall is very permeable
  • bulk flow of water and solutes
  • rapid plasma and interstitial fluid interchange
  • plasma is carefully regulated
137
Q

interstitial fluid is the …

A

environment for all cells

138
Q

normal daily inputs

A
  • ingestion (fluid and food)
  • metabolism
139
Q

normal daily outputs

A
  • gut
  • urine
  • breathing/skin
  • sweating
140
Q

which normal daily inputs/outputs are used to regulate fluid volume

A
  • fluid
  • urine
141
Q

the immune system

A

a network of cells and tissues that
- defend the body against invading pathogens
- destroys abnormal/mutant cells within the body
- removes worn-out cells

142
Q

harmful effects of the immune system

A
  • allergies/autoimmune disease
  • tissue rejection
143
Q

infection-causing organisms

A
  • bacteria
  • parasite
  • fungus
  • virus
144
Q

tissue immune system

A

primary and secondary lymphoid organs

145
Q

cells immune system

A
  • lymphocytes
  • granulocytes
  • monocytes/macrophages
  • dendritic cells
  • natural killer cells
146
Q

soluble mediators immune system

A
  • cytokines and chemokines
  • complement proteins
147
Q

central (primary) lymphoid tissues

A
  • bone marrow (site of B cell development)
  • thymus (site of T cell development)
148
Q

peripheral (secondary) lymphoid tissue

A
  • spleen
  • lymph nodes
  • gut associated lymphoid tissue
  • adenoids
  • appendix
  • tonsils
149
Q

neutrophils

A
  • destroy bacteria by phagocytosis
  • clean up debris
  • first defenders on scene of bacterial invasion
150
Q

most abundant leukocyte

A

neutrophil

151
Q

an increase in eosinophilia is associated with:

A
  • allergic conditions (asthma, hay fever)
  • internal parasite infections (attach to worm and secrete substances to kill it
152
Q

eosinophilia

A

increase in circulating eosinophils

153
Q

monocytes

A
  • emerge from bone marrow while immature and circulate before settling down in various tissues
  • become professional phagocytes
  • act as antigen presenting cells
154
Q

monocytes mature and enlarge to become…

A

macrophages

155
Q

nonspecific (innate) immunity and examples

A
  • initial and immediate response against invasion by pathogens
  • phagocytosis, inflammation
156
Q

nonspecific (innate) immunity main mechanisms

A
  • physical barriers (skin, mucous membranes)
  • inflammation and phagocytosis
  • interferon, NK cells
  • complement
157
Q

specific (adaptive) immunity

A
  • comes after nonspecific responses
  • respond to specific pathogens on 2nd or later exposure
158
Q

inflammatory response signs

A
  • redness
  • heat
  • swelling
  • pain
159
Q

inflammatory response results

A
  • destroys or inactivates invaders
  • removes debris
  • prepares for healing and repair
160
Q

stages of phagocytosis

A
  • attachment
  • internalisation (0.1 sec)
  • degradation
  • exocytosis
161
Q

interferon

A
  • a, B, y
  • cytokine released by virus-infected cells
  • protects other cells from any virus
  • induces expression of enzymes that prevent viral replication
162
Q

interferon anti-cancer effects

A
  • slows cell division
  • enhances action of NK cells and cytotoxic T cells
163
Q

natural killer cells

A
  • attack virus-infected cells
  • causes lysis via release of perforins
164
Q

complement system

A
  • a number of small proteins that normally circulate as inactive precursors in the blood
  • activation results in the formation of a cell-killing membrane attack complex
  • induces lysis of invading microorganisms
  • complements the ability of other immune mechanisms to clear pathogens
165
Q

specificity (specific immunity)

A
  • lymphocytes (B and T cells) bind and respond to foreign molecules (antigens) via antigen receptors
  • antibody-antigen interactions are specific
166
Q

diversity (specific immunity)

A

the body possesses lymphocytes that recognize and respond to antigens

167
Q

memory (specific immunity)

A
  • 1st exposure: generates lymphocytes and memory cells
  • next exposure: memory cells react faster and with stronger response
168
Q

self-tolerance (specific immunity)

A

lymphocytes distinguish normal antigens from foreign material

169
Q

2 types of lymphocytes

A
  • B lymphocytes (B cells)
  • T lymphocytes (T cells)
170
Q

B lymphocytes (B cells)

A
  • produce antibodies that circulate in the blood)
  • defend against bacteria toxins and viruses in body fluids
  • antibody-mediated or humoral immunity
171
Q

T lymphocytes (T cells)

A
  • do not produce antibodies
  • directly destroy specific target cells by releasing chemicals that punch holes in the victim cell
  • target cells include body cells invaded by viruses and cancer cells
172
Q

which part of specific immunity failing results in an autoimmune disease

A
  • self-tolerance
  • attack normal healthy cells
173
Q

how do antibodies function

A
  • neutralization (block the activity of a pathogen)
  • agglutination (multiple pathogens are aggregated by antibody molecules)
  • opsonization (bound pathogens are more efficiently engulfed by phagocytes)
  • complement activation (antibodies activate lysis of the cell)
  • enhanced NK cell activity (abnormal body cells are lysed)
174
Q

lysis definition

A
  • rupture of the cell membrane
  • destroying a cell
175
Q

T cell types

A
  • helper
  • cytotoxic
176
Q

helper T cells

A
  • activated by MHC on antigen-presenting cells
  • secrete cytokines that enhance the activity of cytotoxic T cells (enhance phagocytosis)
  • stimulate development of B cells into plasma cells (indirect action)
177
Q

cytotoxic T cells

A
  • activated by MHC on virus-infected cell
  • kill infected cells by lysis
178
Q

immune disorders

A
  • rheumatoid arthritis
  • multiple sclerosis
179
Q

rheumatoid arthritis symptoms

A

inflammation and damage to cartilage and bone of joints

180
Q

multiple sclerosis cause and symptoms

A
  • T cells attack myelin
  • blurred vision
  • muscle weakness
  • ataxia (co-ordination, balance, and speech difficulty)
181
Q

AIDS is caused by …

A

Human Immunodefiency Virus (HIV)

182
Q

what does HIV do

A
  • binds to the surface of helper T cells and it’s DNA/RNA enters the cell
  • HIV uses cell to make copies of itself
  • destroys helper T cells
  • immune response weakens and other diseases develop
183
Q

passive diffusion

A
  • molecules diffuse from higher concentration to lower concentration
  • down concentration gradient
184
Q

passive diffusion is proportional to

A
  • size of gradient
  • membrane surface area
  • membrane permeability (high lipid solubility, small molecules, barrier thickness)
  • O2, CO2, fatty acids, steroid hormones
185
Q

passive facilitated diffusion

A
  • conformational carrier molecules in membrane
  • binding leads to conformational change
186
Q

passive facilitated diffusion rate depends on

A
  • number of carriers in the membrane
  • affinity
  • concentration of transported substance
187
Q

affinity definition

A

the strength of the attaction between two substances

188
Q

passive diffusion through ion channels

A
  • both sides open
  • specific to ions
  • some have binding sites
  • depends on electrochemical gradient
189
Q

passive transport types

A
  • diffusion
  • facilitated diffusion
  • diffusion through ion channels
190
Q

passive transport meaning

A

no ATP used

191
Q

active transport meaning

A
  • ATP used
  • opposes electrochemical gradient
192
Q

active transport types

A
  • primary active transport (uses energy directly)
  • secondary active transport (uses a gradient created by active transport)
193
Q

sodium pump (Na+, K+, ATPase)

A
  • phosphorylation (leads to: conformation change, change in affinity)
  • one ATP used per cycle
  • 3:2 ratio of Na+ out to K+ in
  • crucial for ICF/IF difference
194
Q

secondary active transport types

A
  • cotransport
  • countertransport
195
Q

secondary active transport - cotransport

A
  • Na+ moves into cell down gradient
  • releases energy used for glucose co-transport against gradient
196
Q

secondary active transport - countertransport

A

Na+ and H+ go in opposite directions

197
Q

membrane potential

A
  • plasma membrane of all living cells has a membrane potential
  • separation of opposite charges
  • due to difference in concentration and permeability of key ions
198
Q

electrical driving force

A
  • separation of charge across a membrane
  • alignment of opposed charges
199
Q

charged particles of electrical driving force

A
  • anions (-ve)
  • cations (+ve)
200
Q

is extracellular fluid net positive or negative

201
Q

is intracellular fluid net positive or negative

202
Q

electrical driving force depends on

A
  • size of membrane potential
  • quantity of charge
203
Q

typical membrane potential

204
Q

net movement depends on…

A

the balance of all forces

205
Q

membrane potential consequences of Na+, K+, ATPase pump

A
  • membrane potential (-50-90 mV)
  • balance between electrical and chemical (diffusional) forces
206
Q

membrane potential significance

A
  • potential energy (secondary active transport, action potential)
  • uses 20% of resting (basal) metabolic rate
207
Q

resting (basal) metabolic rate definition

A

the number of calories you burn as your body performs basic (basal) life-sustaining function

physiology allied health (6 decks)

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