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AP Bio > Unit 1: Biochemistry > Flashcards

Unit 1: Biochemistry Flashcards

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1
Q

What are Hydrocarbons? Are they polar or nonpolar?

A
  • Long chains of hydrogens and carbons
  • nonpolar
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2
Q

What are Isomers?

A

Compounds with the same number of atoms and same element but a different structure

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3
Q

What are Structural Isomers?

A

A compound with the same molecular formula but a different molecular structure
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4
Q

What are Cis-Tran Isomers?

A

Cis Isomers are when the functional groups are on the same side of a carbon chain. Tran Isomers are when the functional groups are on the opposite sides of the carbon chain
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5
Q

What are the 4 types of macromolecules?

A

Carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins

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6
Q

What are Enantiomers?

A

2 molecules that are the mirror opposite of each other
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7
Q

What is dehydration synthesis?

A

Dehydration synthesis is when a bond is created between 2 molecules from the creation of water. The hydrogen atom of one molecule and the hydroxide molecule of another detach themselves from the 2 molecules are bond together to create water. The 2 molecules now have an empty bond which they use to bond themselves to each other
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8
Q

What is Hydrolysis?

A

When a bond is broken between 2 molecules from the addition of water. A water molecule breaks into a hydrogen atom and a hydroxide molecule that breaks apart the 2 molecules and they both bond themselves to one of the molecules.
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9
Q

What are Carbohydrates made of?

A

Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen

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10
Q

Carbohydrate’s function

A
  • Main source of energy
  • Structural support in plant and animal cells
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11
Q

Monomers and Polymer of Carbohydrates

A

Monosaccharides and polysaccharides

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12
Q

What unique thing do carbohydrates do in an aqueous solution?

A

Form rings

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13
Q

What are Glycosidic Linkage?

A

A covalent bond between 2 monosaccharides via dehydration synthesis

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14
Q

What is Starch? (Macromolecule, plant or animal, function, where is it, what type of glucose)

A
  • carbohydrate, polysaccharide
  • energy storage for plants
  • can be hydrolyzed to form glucose
  • in the plastids of plants
  • ά-Glucose molecule
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15
Q

What is Cellulose? (Macromolecule, plant or animal, function, what type of glucose)

A
  • Carbohydrate, polysaccharide
  • plants
  • makes up a plant’s cell walls
  • β-Glucose molecule
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16
Q

What is Glycogen? (Macromolecule, plant or animal, function, where is it, what type of glucose)

A
  • carbohydrate, polysaccharide
  • animal energy storage
  • can be hydrolyzed to form glucose
  • within liver and muscle cells
  • ά-Glucose molecule
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17
Q

What are Lipids composed of?

A

Mostly Carbons and Hydrogens

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18
Q

Lipid Function

A
  • Stores energy
  • cell membranes
  • waterproof covering
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19
Q

Lipid Monomers

A

Fatty acids and glycerol

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20
Q

Why aren’t Lipids considered polymers?

A

Polymers are supposed to go on indefinitely from any side, while glycerol can only bond up to 3 fatty acids

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21
Q

Are Lipids Hydrophobic or Hydrophilic? Nonpolar or Polar?

A

Hydrophobic, Nonpolar

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22
Q

What are Saturated Lipids?

A
  • all single carbon bonds
  • max number of hydrogens bonded (therefore “saturated”)
  • solid at room temp
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23
Q

What are Unsaturated Lipids? Polyunsaturated?

A
  • at least 1 double bond
  • liquid at room temp
  • Polyunsaturated have more than 1 double bond
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24
Q

Important features of a Phospholipid?

A
  • have polar(head) and nonpolar(tail) regions
  • have hydrophilic(head) and hydrophobic(tails) region
  • make up cell membrane
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25
Q

What are Steroids?

A

Lipids that have 4 fused rings attached to a carbon skeleton
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26
Q

What are Nucleic Acids composed of?

A

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphate, nitrogen

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27
Q

What are the monomers and polymers of Nucleic Acids?

A

Nucleotides, DNA or RNA

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28
Q

What are the 3 parts of Nucleotides?

A

5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, nitrogen base

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29
Q

Function of Nucleic Acids

A

Store and transmit genetic information

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30
Q

What are the Nucleotides of DNA and RNA?

A

Cytosine, Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Uracil

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31
Q

What are Proteins composed of?

A

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen

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32
Q

What are the monomers and polymers of Protein?

A

Amino acids, polypeptides

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33
Q

What is the function of Protein

A
  • control reaction rates and cell processes
  • some form bones/muscles
  • transport substances
  • hormones
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34
Q

What type of bonds for amino acids form?

A

Peptide bonds

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35
Q

What are the 4 levels of organization for Proteins?

A

Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary

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36
Q

What are Primary Structures?

A

Specific amino acid sequence

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37
Q

What are Secondary Structures?

A

Can be an alpha helix shape or beta pleated sheet depending on the location of the hydrogen bonding on the peptide backbone

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38
Q

What is the Tertiary Structure?

A
  • 3-D shape the protein assumes as a result from various bonding between the R-groups
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39
Q

What is the Quaternary Structure?

A

A clustering of multiple peptide chains that can be Fibrous or Globular

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40
Q

What is Denaturation?

A

Not ideal environmental conditions causes bonds to break, therefore changing the shape of the protein and affects the ability to function properly

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41
Q

What are the Elements Essential for Life?

A

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen

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42
Q

What are Trace Elements

A

An element required in minute amounts

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43
Q

Covalent Bonding

A

Atoms sharing valence electrons

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44
Q

What is Electronegativity?

A

Tendency of an atom/group to attract electrons towards itself

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45
Q

What is a Polar Covalent bond? What is a Nonpolar Covalent bond?

A

Polar: unequal distribution of charge
Non-polar: equal distribution of charge
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46
Q

What are Ionic Bonds?

A

Bond between oppositely charge ions, electrons are transferred, these bonds easily disassociate in water

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47
Q

What are hydrogen bonds?

A

A weak bond between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom/compound. Considered weak because there are specific biological processes that break them

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48
Q

What are important factors about Water?

A
  • Polar Molecule
  • held together by hydrogen bonds
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49
Q

What is Cohesion?

A

Same molecules are attracted to each other due to Hydrogen bonding. Also results in high surface tension due to powerful bonds between the molecules

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50
Q

What is Adhesion?

A

Clinging of one substance to another due to Hydrogen bonding

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51
Q

What are properties of Water that are due to Hydrogen bonding?

A

High-Surface Tension, High Specific Heat, High Heat of Vaporization, Solid form of water (ice) is less dense than the liquid form

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52
Q

What is High Specific Heat? What is High Heat of Vaporization?

A

High Specific Heat means it takes a lot of energy to increase and decreases the temperature of a substance. High Heat of Vaporization means that the substance requires a lot of heat to convert 1g liquid water to gas

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53
Q

Why does water become less dense as it freezes?

A

The water molecules take on a crystalline formation as it freezes which makes the molecules further apart than its liquid form. Important for marine life because it allows life to continue on below the surface

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54
Q

What is an aqueous solution?

A

Solution where water is a the solvent

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55
Q

What is Molarity?

A

Number of Moles of solute per liter of solution

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56
Q

What is the pH of Acids, What does it change about a solution?

A
  • pH is 1-6
  • Increases Hydrogen in the solution
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57
Q

What is the pH of Bases? What does it change about a solution?

A
  • pH is 8-13
  • Increases Hydroxide in a solution
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58
Q

What is Activation Energy?

A

Initial input of energy required to break down large molecules

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59
Q

What are Catalysts?

A

An enzyme that reduces the amount of energy required to start a reaction

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60
Q

What are important factors about enzymes? (Use, macromolecule)

A

-Increases rate of reaction
-reduces activation energy
-required for most biological reactions
-proteins

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61
Q

What is a Substrate

A

Reactant that binds to an enzyme

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62
Q

What is a Product

A

End result of a reaction

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63
Q

What is an active site

A

Enzyme’s catalytic site

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64
Q

What is Induced Fit?

A

The substrate binding causes enzyme to change shape leading to a tighter fit

65
Q

What are 2 actions that enzymes do to lower activation energy and speed up a reaction?

A

Synthesis and Digestion
- active sites puts substrates in correct position
- active sites binds substrate and puts stress on bonds that must be broken, which makes it easier to separate molecules

66
Q

What are the 7 factors that affect enzyme function?

A

Enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, temperature, pH, Salinity, Activators, and Inhibitors

67
Q

What happens when the enzyme concentration is increased?

A

It increases the rate of reaction because there are more enzymes to bind with substrates. It slows down because there aren’t enough substrates for the enzymes to bind to after a certain point.

68
Q

What happens when the substrate concentration in increased?

A

It increases rate of reaction because there are more substrates for the enzyme to bind to, it decreases the competition to bind. It slows down after a certain point because all enzymes will have their active sites engaged. The maximum rate of reaction will be reached

69
Q

What is Optimum Temperature?

A

Greatest number of molecular collisions

70
Q

What are Activators?

A

Compounds that aid enzymes

71
Q

What is Salinity?

A

Salt Concentration

72
Q

What are Cofactors?

A

Non-protein, small inorganic compounds and ions. Are bound within the molecule

73
Q

What are Coenzymes?

A

Non-protein, organic molecules that bind near active site

74
Q

What are Inhibitors?

A

Molecules that reduce enzyme activity

75
Q

What are the 4 types of Inhibitors

A

Competitive, noncompetitive, irreversible, and feedback

76
Q

What is Competitive Inhibition

A

Inhibitor and substrate compete for the active site

77
Q

What is Non Competitive Inhibition?

A

Inhibitor binds to site other than the active site which causes a conformational change in the enzymes active site which makes it no longer functional. Called the allosteric inhibitor and the allosteric site

78
Q

What is cooperativity?

A

The substrate enhances the enzymes activity by causing a positive conformational change

79
Q

What is feedback inhibition?

A

When the enzyme is inhibited by the end product of the reaction pathway. Usually acts like an allosteric inhibitor

80
Q

What is Cytology?

A

Study of cell structure

81
Q

What is a protist?

A

Unicellular eukaryotes

82
Q

What are 5 features that prokaryotes and eukaryotes share?

A

Plasma membrane. Cytosol, chromosomes, ribosomes, cytoplasm

83
Q

What are 2 factors that effect cell size?

A

Surface area - volume ratio
metabolic requirements

84
Q

How does surface area to volume ratio effect cell size?

A
  • smaller cells are more efficient compared to bigger cells b/c materials can cross through quicker and there is a higher surface area to volume ratio, meaning the cell can take in more nutrients to sustain a smaller amount
85
Q

How does metabolic requirements effect cell size?

A

The cell has to be a certain size to fit all the components needed for it to function

86
Q

What are the 2 cellular components involved in the genetic control of the cell?

A

Nucleus, houses the cell’s DNA
Ribosome, uses information from the DNA to synthesize proteins

87
Q

What 3 organelles can gene information be found in?

A

DNA, mitochondria, chloroplasts

88
Q

What is the function of mRNA?

A

It is synthesized in the nucleus and carries information out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm. It reaches the ribosomes and the ribosomes translate the information into a specific protein

89
Q

What is the function difference between bound and free ribosomes?

A

Free Ribosomes: produces proteins that function primarily within the cytosol
Bound Ribosomes: produces proteins made for insertion into the membrane

90
Q

What organelles does the Endomembrane system include?

A

Nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, lysosomes, vesicles, vacuoles

91
Q

How does the Smooth ER detoxify substances?

A

Adds hydroxyl groups to the toxic substances to make them water-soluble and able to e flushed from the body

92
Q

What are the Cis and Trans faces of the Golgi Appartus?

A

Cis Face: vesicles add materials to this part of the Golgi
Trans Face: vesicles pinch off from the trans face

93
Q

What are the 3 main types of fibers that make up the cytoskeleton?

A

Microtubules, intermediate filaments, micro filaments

94
Q

What are the 2 organelles require to work together to aid cell motility?

A

Cytoskeleton and motor proteins

95
Q

What is an amphipathic molecule?

A

Contains both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions

96
Q

Psychoactive drugs

A

Chemical substance that alters the brain, causes changes in perception and mood

97
Q

Substance use disorder

A

Characterized by continued substance use despite significant life disruption

98
Q

What are 4 parts of a substance use disorder?

A

Diminished control, diminished social functioning, hazardous use, and drug action

99
Q

What are the 2 factors that contribute to the effect of a drug?

A

Biological effects and the users expectation

100
Q

What are the 3 major categories of psychoactive drugs?

A

Depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens

101
Q

What do psychoactive drugs do to neurotransmitters and receptors? (3)

A

Stimulates or inhibits the receptors
mimics neurotransmitters

102
Q

Depressant function

A

calms neural activity and slows body function

103
Q

How does alcohol act as a disinhibitor?

A

Alcohol slows brain activity that controls judgement and inhibitions

104
Q

What are the 3 effects of alcohol consumption?

A

Slows sympathetic nervous system activity
disrupts memory formation
reduced self-awareness

105
Q

What are barbiturates?

A

Drugs that depress the central nervous system activity, reduces anxiety but impairs memory and judgment, tranquilizers

106
Q

What are opiods?

A

Depress neural activity, temporarily lessens pain and anxiety

107
Q

What happens when the brain is repeatedly exposed to synthetic opioids?

A

The brain will stop producing natural endorphins, causing a dependence on these artificial opioids

108
Q

What are stimulants?

A

Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

109
Q

What are some uses for stimulants?

A

Feeling alert, losing weight, boosting mood, athletic performance, or academic performance

110
Q

What occurs when someone takes a hit of nicotine?

A

The central nervous system releases a flood of neurotransmitters. The epinephrine and norepinephrine will diminish appetite and boost alertness and mental efficiency. Dopamine and opioids will calm anxiety

111
Q

How does cocaine effect the body?

A

It produces a rush of euphoria from the rush of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine, which results in a major depression and crash once the drug wears off. The drug binds to the sites that reabsorb the neurotransmitters, resulting in these neurotransmitters staying long afterwards

112
Q

What is the effect of amphetamines?

A

They stimulate neural activity, energy and mood rises

113
Q

What are mathamphetamines?

A

they trigger the release of dopamine which stimulates braincells that enhance energy and mood, but results in a crash afterwards. Over time, it reduces the baseline dopamine levels, resulting in a depressed mood

114
Q

What is ecstasy?

A

A stimulant and a mild hallucinogen, it triggers dopamine release and released stored serotonin and blocks reuptake.

115
Q
A
116
Q

What are the harms of ecstacy?

A

Dehydrating effect that can lead to overheating, increased blood pressure and death. Can damage the serotonin-producing neurons. Suppresses the immune system, impairs memory, slows thought, and disrupts sleep

117
Q

What are hallucinogens?

A

Distorts perception and evoke sensory images

118
Q

What are the effects of THC?

A

Hallucinations, delusions, anxiety
amplifies sensitivity
also relaxes, disinhibits, and brings on a high
impairs motor coordination, perceptual skills, and reaction time

119
Q

What are the 5 stimulants?

A

Caffeine, cocaine, methamphetamines, ecstasy, nicotine

120
Q

What are the 2 depressants?

A

Alcohol, heroin

121
Q

What are the 3 hallucinogens?

A

Ecstasy, LSD, Marijuana

122
Q

What is phrenology? Is it trustworthy?

A

Study of the bumps on the skull and the possible mental abilities and traits, debunked

123
Q

What is localization of function?

A

The idea that various brain regions have particular functions

124
Q

What systems need to be studied to understand behavior?

A

Biological, psychological, and social cultural

125
Q

What is the biopsychosocial approach? What are the 3 levels of analysis?

A

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social cultural levels of analysis

126
Q

What is neuroplasticity?

A

The brain’s ability to change by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

127
Q

What is lesion?

A

Tissue destruction

128
Q

How do scientists lesion?

A

they lesion tiny clusters of normal or defective brain cells to observe their effect on brain function

129
Q

What are the 3 main divisions of vertebrate brains?

A

Hindbrain, midbrain, and the forebrain

130
Q

What does the hindbrain do?

A

Contains brainstem strucutres that direct essential survival functions

131
Q

What does the midbrain do?

A

Connects the hindbrain and the forebrain, controls movement and transmit information that enables seeing and hearing

132
Q

What does the forebrain do?

A

Manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor movement

133
Q

Organism’s brain parts evolve to best suit their environment, True or False?

A

true

134
Q

What is the brainstem responsible for?

A

Automatic survival functions

135
Q

What does the medulla do?

A

Hindbrain, controls heartbeat and breathing

136
Q

Pon’s function

A

Coordinate movements and control sleep

137
Q

What is the brain’s contralateral hemisphere organization?

A

The sides of the brain controls the opposite sides of the body.

138
Q

Thalamus Function

A

The forebrain’s sensory control center, directs messages tot he sensory reciving areas in the cortex and trasmit replies to the cerebellum and medulla

139
Q

What is the reticular formation?

A

Nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus, filters information and controls arousal

140
Q

Cerebellum function

A

Processes sensory input, coordinates movement output and balance, enables nonverbal learning and memory

141
Q

What would occur if the cerebellum was injured?

A

Difficulty walking and balancing

142
Q

Limbic system function?

A

Located mostly in the forebrain, associated with emotions and drives

143
Q

What are the parts of the brain associated with the limbic system (5)

A

Hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary glands, amygdala, hypothalamus

144
Q

What is the amygdala?

A

Enables aggression and fear

145
Q

What is the hypothalamus?

A

Directs maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system and is linked to emotion and reward

146
Q

What is the hippocampus?

A

processes conscious, explicit memories

147
Q

What happens when the hippocampus is injured?

A

The ability for form new memories of facts or events are lost

148
Q

What is the cerebrum?

A

The 2 cerebral hemispheres that enables our perceiving thinking, and speaking

149
Q

What is the cerebral cortex?

A

Thin surface layer of interconnected neural cells over the cerebrum

150
Q

What is the cerebrum mostly filled with?

A

Axons connecting the cortex to other regions

151
Q

What are the 4 lobes the hemisphere’s cortex are divided into?

A

Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal

152
Q

Frontal lobe function

A

Enables linguistic processing, muscle movement, high order thinking, and executive function

153
Q

Parietal lob function

A

Receives sensory input for touch and body posiition

154
Q

Occipital lobe function

A

Areas that receive information from visual fields

155
Q

Temporal lobe function

A

Auditory areas that receives information from the opposite ear, also enables language processing

156
Q

What is the motor cortex?

A

Controls voluntary movement at the front lobes

157
Q

How does body part sensitivity relate to brain size?

A

The bigger area in the brain, the greater sensitivity of that area

158
Q

Somatosensory cortex function

A

Specializes in receiving information from the senses and from the movement of body parts

159
Q

What are association areas?

A

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are involved in higher mental functions

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