Unit 1: Biochemistry Flashcards
What are Hydrocarbons? Are they polar or nonpolar?
- Long chains of hydrogens and carbons
- nonpolar
What are Isomers?
Compounds with the same number of atoms and same element but a different structure
What are Structural Isomers?
A compound with the same molecular formula but a different molecular structure
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What are Cis-Tran Isomers?
Cis Isomers are when the functional groups are on the same side of a carbon chain. Tran Isomers are when the functional groups are on the opposite sides of the carbon chain
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What are the 4 types of macromolecules?
Carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins
What are Enantiomers?
2 molecules that are the mirror opposite of each other
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What is dehydration synthesis?
Dehydration synthesis is when a bond is created between 2 molecules from the creation of water. The hydrogen atom of one molecule and the hydroxide molecule of another detach themselves from the 2 molecules are bond together to create water. The 2 molecules now have an empty bond which they use to bond themselves to each other
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What is Hydrolysis?
When a bond is broken between 2 molecules from the addition of water. A water molecule breaks into a hydrogen atom and a hydroxide molecule that breaks apart the 2 molecules and they both bond themselves to one of the molecules.
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What are Carbohydrates made of?
Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen
Carbohydrate’s function
- Main source of energy
- Structural support in plant and animal cells
Monomers and Polymer of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides and polysaccharides
What unique thing do carbohydrates do in an aqueous solution?
Form rings
What are Glycosidic Linkage?
A covalent bond between 2 monosaccharides via dehydration synthesis
What is Starch? (Macromolecule, plant or animal, function, where is it, what type of glucose)
- carbohydrate, polysaccharide
- energy storage for plants
- can be hydrolyzed to form glucose
- in the plastids of plants
- ά-Glucose molecule
What is Cellulose? (Macromolecule, plant or animal, function, what type of glucose)
- Carbohydrate, polysaccharide
- plants
- makes up a plant’s cell walls
- β-Glucose molecule
What is Glycogen? (Macromolecule, plant or animal, function, where is it, what type of glucose)
- carbohydrate, polysaccharide
- animal energy storage
- can be hydrolyzed to form glucose
- within liver and muscle cells
- ά-Glucose molecule
What are Lipids composed of?
Mostly Carbons and Hydrogens
Lipid Function
- Stores energy
- cell membranes
- waterproof covering
Lipid Monomers
Fatty acids and glycerol
Why aren’t Lipids considered polymers?
Polymers are supposed to go on indefinitely from any side, while glycerol can only bond up to 3 fatty acids
Are Lipids Hydrophobic or Hydrophilic? Nonpolar or Polar?
Hydrophobic, Nonpolar
What are Saturated Lipids?
- all single carbon bonds
- max number of hydrogens bonded (therefore “saturated”)
- solid at room temp
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What are Unsaturated Lipids? Polyunsaturated?
- at least 1 double bond
- liquid at room temp
- Polyunsaturated have more than 1 double bond
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Important features of a Phospholipid?
- have polar(head) and nonpolar(tail) regions
- have hydrophilic(head) and hydrophobic(tails) region
- make up cell membrane
What are Steroids?
Lipids that have 4 fused rings attached to a carbon skeleton
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What are Nucleic Acids composed of?
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphate, nitrogen
What are the monomers and polymers of Nucleic Acids?
Nucleotides, DNA or RNA
What are the 3 parts of Nucleotides?
5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, nitrogen base
Function of Nucleic Acids
Store and transmit genetic information
What are the Nucleotides of DNA and RNA?
Cytosine, Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Uracil
What are Proteins composed of?
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen
What are the monomers and polymers of Protein?
Amino acids, polypeptides
What is the function of Protein
- control reaction rates and cell processes
- some form bones/muscles
- transport substances
- hormones
What type of bonds for amino acids form?
Peptide bonds
What are the 4 levels of organization for Proteins?
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary
What are Primary Structures?
Specific amino acid sequence
What are Secondary Structures?
Can be an alpha helix shape or beta pleated sheet depending on the location of the hydrogen bonding on the peptide backbone
What is the Tertiary Structure?
- 3-D shape the protein assumes as a result from various bonding between the R-groups
What is the Quaternary Structure?
A clustering of multiple peptide chains that can be Fibrous or Globular
What is Denaturation?
Not ideal environmental conditions causes bonds to break, therefore changing the shape of the protein and affects the ability to function properly
What are the Elements Essential for Life?
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
What are Trace Elements
An element required in minute amounts
Covalent Bonding
Atoms sharing valence electrons
What is Electronegativity?
Tendency of an atom/group to attract electrons towards itself
What is a Polar Covalent bond? What is a Nonpolar Covalent bond?
Polar: unequal distribution of charge
Non-polar: equal distribution of charge
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What are Ionic Bonds?
Bond between oppositely charge ions, electrons are transferred, these bonds easily disassociate in water
What are hydrogen bonds?
A weak bond between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom/compound. Considered weak because there are specific biological processes that break them
What are important factors about Water?
- Polar Molecule
- held together by hydrogen bonds
What is Cohesion?
Same molecules are attracted to each other due to Hydrogen bonding. Also results in high surface tension due to powerful bonds between the molecules
What is Adhesion?
Clinging of one substance to another due to Hydrogen bonding
What are properties of Water that are due to Hydrogen bonding?
High-Surface Tension, High Specific Heat, High Heat of Vaporization, Solid form of water (ice) is less dense than the liquid form
What is High Specific Heat? What is High Heat of Vaporization?
High Specific Heat means it takes a lot of energy to increase and decreases the temperature of a substance. High Heat of Vaporization means that the substance requires a lot of heat to convert 1g liquid water to gas
Why does water become less dense as it freezes?
The water molecules take on a crystalline formation as it freezes which makes the molecules further apart than its liquid form. Important for marine life because it allows life to continue on below the surface
What is an aqueous solution?
Solution where water is a the solvent
What is Molarity?
Number of Moles of solute per liter of solution
What is the pH of Acids, What does it change about a solution?
- pH is 1-6
- Increases Hydrogen in the solution
What is the pH of Bases? What does it change about a solution?
- pH is 8-13
- Increases Hydroxide in a solution
What is Activation Energy?
Initial input of energy required to break down large molecules
What are Catalysts?
An enzyme that reduces the amount of energy required to start a reaction
What are important factors about enzymes? (Use, macromolecule)
-Increases rate of reaction
-reduces activation energy
-required for most biological reactions
-proteins
What is a Substrate
Reactant that binds to an enzyme
What is a Product
End result of a reaction
What is an active site
Enzyme’s catalytic site
What is Induced Fit?
The substrate binding causes enzyme to change shape leading to a tighter fit
What are 2 actions that enzymes do to lower activation energy and speed up a reaction?
Synthesis and Digestion
- active sites puts substrates in correct position
- active sites binds substrate and puts stress on bonds that must be broken, which makes it easier to separate molecules
What are the 7 factors that affect enzyme function?
Enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, temperature, pH, Salinity, Activators, and Inhibitors
What happens when the enzyme concentration is increased?
It increases the rate of reaction because there are more enzymes to bind with substrates. It slows down because there aren’t enough substrates for the enzymes to bind to after a certain point.
What happens when the substrate concentration in increased?
It increases rate of reaction because there are more substrates for the enzyme to bind to, it decreases the competition to bind. It slows down after a certain point because all enzymes will have their active sites engaged. The maximum rate of reaction will be reached
What is Optimum Temperature?
Greatest number of molecular collisions
What are Activators?
Compounds that aid enzymes
What is Salinity?
Salt Concentration
What are Cofactors?
Non-protein, small inorganic compounds and ions. Are bound within the molecule
What are Coenzymes?
Non-protein, organic molecules that bind near active site
What are Inhibitors?
Molecules that reduce enzyme activity
What are the 4 types of Inhibitors
Competitive, noncompetitive, irreversible, and feedback
What is Competitive Inhibition
Inhibitor and substrate compete for the active site
What is Non Competitive Inhibition?
Inhibitor binds to site other than the active site which causes a conformational change in the enzymes active site which makes it no longer functional. Called the allosteric inhibitor and the allosteric site
What is cooperativity?
The substrate enhances the enzymes activity by causing a positive conformational change
What is feedback inhibition?
When the enzyme is inhibited by the end product of the reaction pathway. Usually acts like an allosteric inhibitor
What is Cytology?
Study of cell structure
What is a protist?
Unicellular eukaryotes
What are 5 features that prokaryotes and eukaryotes share?
Plasma membrane. Cytosol, chromosomes, ribosomes, cytoplasm
What are 2 factors that effect cell size?
Surface area - volume ratio
metabolic requirements
How does surface area to volume ratio effect cell size?
- smaller cells are more efficient compared to bigger cells b/c materials can cross through quicker and there is a higher surface area to volume ratio, meaning the cell can take in more nutrients to sustain a smaller amount
How does metabolic requirements effect cell size?
The cell has to be a certain size to fit all the components needed for it to function
What are the 2 cellular components involved in the genetic control of the cell?
Nucleus, houses the cell’s DNA
Ribosome, uses information from the DNA to synthesize proteins
What 3 organelles can gene information be found in?
DNA, mitochondria, chloroplasts
What is the function of mRNA?
It is synthesized in the nucleus and carries information out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm. It reaches the ribosomes and the ribosomes translate the information into a specific protein
What is the function difference between bound and free ribosomes?
Free Ribosomes: produces proteins that function primarily within the cytosol
Bound Ribosomes: produces proteins made for insertion into the membrane
What organelles does the Endomembrane system include?
Nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, lysosomes, vesicles, vacuoles
How does the Smooth ER detoxify substances?
Adds hydroxyl groups to the toxic substances to make them water-soluble and able to e flushed from the body
What are the Cis and Trans faces of the Golgi Appartus?
Cis Face: vesicles add materials to this part of the Golgi
Trans Face: vesicles pinch off from the trans face
What are the 3 main types of fibers that make up the cytoskeleton?
Microtubules, intermediate filaments, micro filaments
What are the 2 organelles require to work together to aid cell motility?
Cytoskeleton and motor proteins
What is an amphipathic molecule?
Contains both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
Psychoactive drugs
Chemical substance that alters the brain, causes changes in perception and mood
Substance use disorder
Characterized by continued substance use despite significant life disruption
What are 4 parts of a substance use disorder?
Diminished control, diminished social functioning, hazardous use, and drug action
What are the 2 factors that contribute to the effect of a drug?
Biological effects and the users expectation
What are the 3 major categories of psychoactive drugs?
Depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens
What do psychoactive drugs do to neurotransmitters and receptors? (3)
Stimulates or inhibits the receptors
mimics neurotransmitters
Depressant function
calms neural activity and slows body function
How does alcohol act as a disinhibitor?
Alcohol slows brain activity that controls judgement and inhibitions
What are the 3 effects of alcohol consumption?
Slows sympathetic nervous system activity
disrupts memory formation
reduced self-awareness
What are barbiturates?
Drugs that depress the central nervous system activity, reduces anxiety but impairs memory and judgment, tranquilizers
What are opiods?
Depress neural activity, temporarily lessens pain and anxiety
What happens when the brain is repeatedly exposed to synthetic opioids?
The brain will stop producing natural endorphins, causing a dependence on these artificial opioids
What are stimulants?
Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
What are some uses for stimulants?
Feeling alert, losing weight, boosting mood, athletic performance, or academic performance
What occurs when someone takes a hit of nicotine?
The central nervous system releases a flood of neurotransmitters. The epinephrine and norepinephrine will diminish appetite and boost alertness and mental efficiency. Dopamine and opioids will calm anxiety
How does cocaine effect the body?
It produces a rush of euphoria from the rush of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine, which results in a major depression and crash once the drug wears off. The drug binds to the sites that reabsorb the neurotransmitters, resulting in these neurotransmitters staying long afterwards
What is the effect of amphetamines?
They stimulate neural activity, energy and mood rises
What are mathamphetamines?
they trigger the release of dopamine which stimulates braincells that enhance energy and mood, but results in a crash afterwards. Over time, it reduces the baseline dopamine levels, resulting in a depressed mood
What is ecstasy?
A stimulant and a mild hallucinogen, it triggers dopamine release and released stored serotonin and blocks reuptake.
What are the harms of ecstacy?
Dehydrating effect that can lead to overheating, increased blood pressure and death. Can damage the serotonin-producing neurons. Suppresses the immune system, impairs memory, slows thought, and disrupts sleep
What are hallucinogens?
Distorts perception and evoke sensory images
What are the effects of THC?
Hallucinations, delusions, anxiety
amplifies sensitivity
also relaxes, disinhibits, and brings on a high
impairs motor coordination, perceptual skills, and reaction time
What are the 5 stimulants?
Caffeine, cocaine, methamphetamines, ecstasy, nicotine
What are the 2 depressants?
Alcohol, heroin
What are the 3 hallucinogens?
Ecstasy, LSD, Marijuana
What is phrenology? Is it trustworthy?
Study of the bumps on the skull and the possible mental abilities and traits, debunked
What is localization of function?
The idea that various brain regions have particular functions
What systems need to be studied to understand behavior?
Biological, psychological, and social cultural
What is the biopsychosocial approach? What are the 3 levels of analysis?
An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social cultural levels of analysis
What is neuroplasticity?
The brain’s ability to change by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
What is lesion?
Tissue destruction
How do scientists lesion?
they lesion tiny clusters of normal or defective brain cells to observe their effect on brain function
What are the 3 main divisions of vertebrate brains?
Hindbrain, midbrain, and the forebrain
What does the hindbrain do?
Contains brainstem strucutres that direct essential survival functions
What does the midbrain do?
Connects the hindbrain and the forebrain, controls movement and transmit information that enables seeing and hearing
What does the forebrain do?
Manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor movement
Organism’s brain parts evolve to best suit their environment, True or False?
true
What is the brainstem responsible for?
Automatic survival functions
What does the medulla do?
Hindbrain, controls heartbeat and breathing
Pon’s function
Coordinate movements and control sleep
What is the brain’s contralateral hemisphere organization?
The sides of the brain controls the opposite sides of the body.
Thalamus Function
The forebrain’s sensory control center, directs messages tot he sensory reciving areas in the cortex and trasmit replies to the cerebellum and medulla
What is the reticular formation?
Nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus, filters information and controls arousal
Cerebellum function
Processes sensory input, coordinates movement output and balance, enables nonverbal learning and memory
What would occur if the cerebellum was injured?
Difficulty walking and balancing
Limbic system function?
Located mostly in the forebrain, associated with emotions and drives
What are the parts of the brain associated with the limbic system (5)
Hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary glands, amygdala, hypothalamus
What is the amygdala?
Enables aggression and fear
What is the hypothalamus?
Directs maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system and is linked to emotion and reward
What is the hippocampus?
processes conscious, explicit memories
What happens when the hippocampus is injured?
The ability for form new memories of facts or events are lost
What is the cerebrum?
The 2 cerebral hemispheres that enables our perceiving thinking, and speaking
What is the cerebral cortex?
Thin surface layer of interconnected neural cells over the cerebrum
What is the cerebrum mostly filled with?
Axons connecting the cortex to other regions
What are the 4 lobes the hemisphere’s cortex are divided into?
Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal
Frontal lobe function
Enables linguistic processing, muscle movement, high order thinking, and executive function
Parietal lob function
Receives sensory input for touch and body posiition
Occipital lobe function
Areas that receive information from visual fields
Temporal lobe function
Auditory areas that receives information from the opposite ear, also enables language processing
What is the motor cortex?
Controls voluntary movement at the front lobes
How does body part sensitivity relate to brain size?
The bigger area in the brain, the greater sensitivity of that area
Somatosensory cortex function
Specializes in receiving information from the senses and from the movement of body parts
