Unit 1 and 2 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the etymology and general definition of “psychology”?
A
- Etymology: From Greek “psyche” (soul, mind) and “logos” (study).
- Traditional Meaning: “Study of the soul” or “study of the mind.”
- Current Description: Scientific study of behavior and mental processes, exploring human thought, emotion, and action.
2
Q
What are structuralism and functionalism in early psychology?
A
- Structuralism (Edward Titchener): Analyzed the basic elements of consciousness via introspection.
- Functionalism (William James): Studied the purpose and function of consciousness and behavior, focusing on how mental processes help adaptation.
3
Q
Define “introspection” as used in structuralism.
A
A method involving systematic self-observation of one’s own conscious experiences to understand mental processes
4
Q
What characterizes empirical research?
A
Research based on systematic observation and experimentation, using measurable, observable evidence to form conclusions rather than relying solely on theory or logic.
5
Q
What is behaviorism?
A
A school of thought stating that psychology should focus on observable, measurable behavior. Founded by John B. Watson and expanded by B.F. Skinner.
6
Q
How did early behaviorists define “behavior,” and what is a broader definition?
A
- Early Behaviorist View: Strictly observable, measurable actions, excluding thoughts and feelings.
- General Definition: Any observable or measurable action, which can include internal processes such as thoughts and emotions.
7
Q
What does “consciousness” refer to in psychology?
A
The state of being aware of, and able to reflect on, one’s own existence, sensations, thoughts, and surroundings.
8
Q
Summarize the nature vs. nurture debate.
A
The debate about whether behavior and traits are primarily determined by genetics (nature) or by environment/experience (nurture).
9
Q
Who developed psychoanalytic theory, and what is its main focus?
A
- Developer: Sigmund Freud.
- Focus: Unconscious motives and conflicts, often rooted in childhood, that shape behavior.
10
Q
What is humanistic psychology, and who are key figures?
A
- Definition: Emphasizes human potential, self-actualization, and free will.
- Key Figures: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
11
Q
What does developmental psychology study?
A
The psychological growth of individuals across the lifespan, including cognitive, emotional, and social development.
12
Q
What is social psychology concerned with?
A
How individual behavior, thoughts, and feelings are influenced by social interactions, group dynamics, and cultural norms.
13
Q
What does experimental psychology examine?
A
Basic psychological processes (e.g., perception, memory, learning) through controlled experiments to uncover cause-and-effect relationships.
14
Q
Define behavioral neuroscience (biological psychology).
A
Studies how the brain, nervous system, and other biological processes influence behavior and mental processes.
15
Q
What is the focus of cognitive psychology?
A
The study of mental processes such as perception, memory, language, problem-solving, and decision-making.
16
Q
What does personality psychology investigate?
A
Individual differences in patterns of behavior, emotion, and thought, often examining traits and temperament.
17
Q
What is psychometrics?
A
The science of measuring mental capacities and processes, often through tests and assessments of intelligence, personality, and aptitude.
18
Q
What does educational psychology focus on?
A
How students learn, effective instructional strategies, and the psychological factors affecting education.
19
Q
What is the goal of health psychology?
A
To explore how psychological, behavioral, and cultural factors affect physical health and well-being.
20
Q
What is evolutionary psychology concerned with?
A
How psychological traits and behaviors may have developed over time via natural selection to aid survival and reproduction.
21
Q
What does positive psychology study?
A
Focuses on promoting well-being, happiness, resilience, creativity, and other positive qualities to help individuals and communities thrive.
22
Q
What does clinical psychology encompass?
A
Diagnosis and treatment of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders, often integrating assessment and psychotherapy.
23
Q
How does counseling psychology differ from clinical psychology?
A
Emphasizes helping individuals with personal, social, and vocational issues, focusing on healthy adjustment rather than severe pathology.
24
Q
What is the focus of school psychology?
A
Applying psychological principles in educational settings to address students’ learning and behavioral challenges and promote academic success.
25
What does I/O psychology study?
Human behavior in the workplace, aiming to improve productivity, select employees effectively, and enhance job satisfaction.
26
How do psychiatry and psychiatrists differ from psychology and psychologists?
Psychiatry is a branch of medicine focused on diagnosing and treating mental disorders, often using medication. Psychiatrists are medical doctors (MDs).
27
Define “cognition.”
The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding, including thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-solving.
28
What is Donald Hebb’s concept of a “cell assembly”?
Groups of neurons form networks through repeated simultaneous activity, contributing to processes like memory and learning.
29
Summarize the principle of natural selection.
Charles Darwin’s theory that organisms with traits better suited to their environment tend to survive and reproduce, passing on advantageous traits.
30
What is a “theory” in scientific terms?
A set of principles or statements that explains observed phenomena and predicts future occurrences, supported by empirical evidence.
31
How is “culture” defined in psychology?
Shared beliefs, values, norms, and practices of a group that shape behavior and worldview.
32
What is meant by the subjectivity of experience?
The idea that personal interpretations and perceptions are influenced by an individual’s emotions, memories, and personal context.
33
What are the primary goals of the scientific enterprise in psychology?
- Measurement and Description: Accurately capture and quantify behavior or phenomena.
- Understanding and Prediction: Explain why behaviors occur and formulate hypotheses.
- Application and Control: Apply findings to solve real-world problems (e.g., education, therapy).
34
Define “hypothesis,” “variable,” and “theory” in psychological research.
- Hypothesis: A proposed relationship between variables, subject to testing.
- Variable: Any measurable condition or characteristic that can vary.
- Theory: A set of interrelated ideas that explains observations and guides further research.
35
Why must a scientific theory be testable?
It allows for observation and experimentation, enabling theories to be supported, modified, or refuted as part of scientific progress.
36
What are the five key steps in a scientific investigation?
1. Formulate a Hypothesis.
2. Design the Study.
3. Collect Data.
4. Analyze Data.
5. Report Findings.
37
What is an operational definition, and why is it important?
A precise specification of how a variable is measured. It ensures consistency, clarity, and allows other researchers to replicate the study.
38
Who are research participants, and what ethical considerations apply?
Individuals who take part in a study, providing data for testing hypotheses. Ethics include informed consent, confidentiality, and the right to withdraw at any time.
39
List common data collection methods in psychological research.
- Surveys/Questionnaires
- Interviews
- Observational Techniques
- Experimental Methods
- Physiological Measurements
40
What is the role of peer review in scientific publication?
Peer review involves experts evaluating research for credibility, methodology, and rigor before it’s published in scientific journals.
41
Name some advantages of using the scientific approach.
- Systematic Observation for objectivity.
- Replicability for confirming results.
- Cumulative Knowledge building a reliable evidence base.
42
Why is anecdotal evidence considered limited in scientific research?
Personal stories often lack rigorous testing and can oversimplify complex phenomena, offering little reliable proof of cause-and-effect relationships.
43
Identify three types of descriptive research and their key limitation.
- Case Studies: In-depth but limited generalizability.
- Surveys: Large-scale data but may have response bias.
- Observational Studies: Real-world behavior but subject to observer bias.
- Limitation: Cannot establish causation.
44
What is a key disadvantage of descriptive and correlational research?
They can reveal relationships but cannot establish cause-and-effect (causation).
45
What is the main difference between experiments and observational studies?
Experiments involve manipulation of variables to establish causation; observational studies record behavior in natural settings without manipulation.
46
Define “independent variable” and “dependent variable.”
- Independent Variable (IV): The factor manipulated by the researcher.
- Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome measured to see the effect of the IV.
47
What is the difference between experimental and control groups?
- Experimental Group: Receives the IV manipulation.
- Control Group: Does not receive the IV; used as a baseline for comparison.
48
What are extraneous and confounding variables?
- Extraneous Variables: Other factors that might influence the DV.
- Confounding Variables: These systematically vary with the IV, distorting the effect on the DV.
49
Why is random assignment crucial in experimental studies?
It ensures participants are placed into groups by chance, minimizing pre-existing differences that could bias results.
50
Contrast between-subjects and within-subjects designs.
- Between-Subjects: Different participants in each group (control vs. experimental).
- Within-Subjects: The same participants act as their own control, reducing individual variability.
51
Why might researchers include multiple independent variables in a single study?
To examine complex interactions and see how more than one factor together influences the dependent variable.
52
What distinguishes a field experiment from a lab experiment?
Field experiments take place in real-world settings, providing more natural behavior and context, though with less control over variables.
53
Define “statistics” in the context of psychological research.
A set of methods for collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting data, aiding in evidence-based conclusions and decisions.
54
What do descriptive statistics accomplish?
They summarize and describe key aspects of a dataset, such as central tendency (mean, median, mode) and variability (range, standard deviation).
55
Name the three measures of central tendency and define each.
- Mean: The arithmetic average of the scores.
- Median: The middle score when data are ordered.
- Mode: The most frequently occurring score.
56
What does “variability” indicate in a data set, and what is standard deviation?
- Variability: Shows how spread out scores are from each other and from the mean.
- Standard Deviation: A measure of how far scores typically deviate from the mean.
57
Explain correlation and the meaning of the correlation coefficient (r).
- Correlation: Describes the relationship between two variables.
- Coefficient (r): Ranges from -1 to +1, indicating strength and direction.
- Positive: Variables increase together.
- Negative: One increases as the other decreases.
- Near 0: Little to no relationship.
58
How does correlation help in psychological research?
It allows researchers to predict one variable from another, though it does not establish causation.
59
What is the purpose of inferential statistics?
They let researchers draw conclusions about a population based on sample data (using tests like t-tests, chi-square, ANOVA), assessing the likelihood that results are due to chance.
60
Why is replication critical in science?
Repeating studies helps verify results, building trust in findings and strengthening scientific evidence.
61
Define “population,” “sample,” and “sampling bias.”
- Population: The entire group under study.
- Sample: A smaller, representative subset of the population.
- Sampling Bias: When some members of the population are more likely than others to be included, potentially skewing results.
62
What is the placebo effect?
When participants experience improvement simply because they believe they are receiving an effective treatment, even if it has no active ingredient.
63
Briefly define social desirability bias, response set, and the halo effect.
- Social Desirability Bias: Tendency to give answers viewed favorably by others.
- Response Set: Habitual way of responding, regardless of question content.
- Halo Effect: An overall impression influences specific judgments or ratings.
64
What is experimenter bias, and how can it be minimized?
- Experimenter Bias: Researchers’ expectations inadvertently influence participant outcomes.
- Double-Blind Procedure: Neither participants nor experimenters know group assignments, reducing bias.
65
Briefly describe the three goals of the scientific enterprise: measurement and description, understanding and prediction, and application and control.
- Measurement and Description: Develop precise techniques to accurately capture and quantify behavior or phenomena, ensuring clarity in psychological research.
- Understanding and Prediction: Explain why behaviors occur and formulate hypotheses to predict future occurrences.
- Application and Control: Utilize research findings to address real-world problems (e.g., in education or therapy) to improve well-being and effectively manage behaviors.
66
Define “hypothesis,” “variable,” and “theory” in psychological research.
- Hypothesis: A tentative statement proposing a relationship between two or more variables, serving as a foundation for empirical testing.
- Variable: Any measurable condition, event, or characteristic that can vary in a study.
- Theory: A coherent framework of interrelated ideas and principles that explains observations and guides future research inquiries.
67
Why must a scientific theory be testable, and what does “testable” mean in this context?
A scientific theory must be testable so it can be supported or refuted through systematic observation and experimentation. “Testable” means the theory makes specific, measurable predictions that allow researchers to evaluate it objectively. Without testability, a theory remains speculative and cannot be verified or refined, limiting its scientific value.
68
Identify and describe the five steps in scientific investigations.
1. Formulate a Hypothesis: Predict a relationship between variables.
2. Design the Study: Choose methods, participants, and controls.
3. Collect Data: Gather information systematically to ensure accuracy.
4. Analyze Data: Use statistical methods to evaluate the hypothesis.
5. Report Findings: Share results and discuss implications with the scientific community.
69
Explain “operational definition” as it applies to variables in a study.
An operational definition specifies how a variable will be measured or manipulated in concrete, measurable terms. For instance, “stress” might be operationally defined by cortisol levels or heart rate. This clarity ensures consistent measurement and allows other researchers to replicate the study accurately.
70
What is a research participant, and what ethical considerations apply?
A research participant is an individual who takes part in a study, providing data to test hypotheses. Ethical considerations include informed consent (knowing the study’s nature and risks), confidentiality (protecting personal information), and the right to withdraw at any time.
71
What are some ways psychologists collect data from participants?
- Surveys/Questionnaires: Self-reported attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
- Interviews: Structured or semi-structured discussions for deeper insights.
- Observational Techniques: Real-time recording of behaviors in natural or controlled settings.
- Experimental Methods: Manipulating variables in a lab to observe cause-effect relationships.
- Physiological Measurements: Tracking biological markers (e.g., heart rate, brain imaging).
72
What is a scientific journal, and what does “peer review” mean in this context?
A scientific journal is a periodical that publishes original research, reviews, and theoretical work. Peer review involves experts evaluating submitted manuscripts for credibility, rigor, and significance before publication, ensuring that only high-quality, reliable findings are shared.
73
Describe two advantages of the scientific approach to the study of behavior.
1. Systematic Observation and Experimentation: Reduces subjectivity and provides objective evidence about behaviors.
2. Replicability: Studies can be repeated to confirm results, strengthening confidence in findings.
74
What is anecdotal evidence, and why is it not reliable for understanding human behavior?
Anecdotal evidence comes from personal stories or isolated examples rather than systematic research. It’s prone to bias and oversimplification, making it unreliable for drawing general conclusions about human behavior. Scientific methods are needed for accurate, evidence-based understanding.
75
What are the three general types of descriptive research, and what are their strengths and weaknesses?
1. Case Studies: Provide in-depth analysis of individuals or small groups (rich detail) but have limited generalizability.
2. Surveys: Collect data from large samples quickly but can be biased by question wording or non-representative sampling.
3. Observational Studies: Observe behaviors in real-life settings, offering natural insights but susceptible to observer bias and lack of control over variables.
76
What are the major advantages and disadvantages of descriptive/correlational research?
- Advantages:
- Provides extensive information about variables in natural settings.
- Often involves large samples, enhancing real-world applicability.
- Disadvantages:
- Cannot prove causation—only shows relationships, not whether one variable causes the other.
77
How do experiments differ from observational studies?
Experiments: Manipulate one or more variables to establish cause-effect relationships.
Observational Studies: Observe existing behaviors without intervention, providing correlational data but no proof of causation.
78
Define and give examples of independent and dependent variables.
- Independent Variable (IV): The factor researchers manipulate. Example: In a sleep study, the IV could be hours of sleep (4, 6, or 8 hours).
- Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome measured to assess the effect of the IV. Example: Memory test performance.
79
Why is the IV manipulated by the researcher?
To see if changes in the IV cause changes in the DV, helping establish a cause-effect relationship.
80
Distinguish between experimental and control groups. Why do we use them?
- Experimental Group: Receives the manipulation (IV).
- Control Group: Does not receive the manipulation, serving as a baseline for comparison.
Having both groups helps isolate the effect of the IV on the DV, allowing for stronger causal conclusions.
81
What are extraneous variables and confounding variables? Why must researchers control them?
- Extraneous Variables: Any other variables that might affect the DV.
- Confounding Variables: Extraneous variables that systematically co-vary with the IV, distorting the results.
Researchers must control or eliminate these factors to ensure that changes in the DV are truly due to the IV alone.
82
Define random assignment. Why is it important?
Random assignment places participants into experimental or control groups by chance, minimizing pre-existing differences between groups. This increases confidence that observed effects are due to the IV rather than participant characteristics.
83
Explain the two broad types of experimental design in psychology: between-subjects and within-subjects.
- Between-Subjects Design: Different participants are assigned to different groups (e.g., control vs. experimental).
- Within-Subjects Design: The same participants serve in multiple conditions, acting as their own control. This reduces individual differences and often requires fewer participants.
84
Why might it be advantageous for one group of subjects to serve as their own control?
It minimizes individual differences, making it easier to detect the effect of the IV. This design can be more efficient and often yields clearer comparisons.
85
Can researchers use two or more independent variables in a single experiment? If so, what is an interaction?
Yes. Using multiple IVs allows investigation of complex relationships. An interaction occurs when the effect of one IV depends on the level of another IV. For example, studying “study technique” (IV1) and “sleep duration” (IV2) on test performance (DV) might show that a specific study technique works best only when participants also get enough sleep.
86
What are field experiments, and can you give an example?
Field experiments are conducted in real-world settings rather than in a laboratory. Example: A researcher testing the effectiveness of a new teaching method by applying it in actual classrooms rather than a simulated environment.
87
What is “statistics,” and why is it important in psychological research?
Statistics refers to the methods used to collect, analyze, interpret, and present data. In psychology, it helps summarize complex data, test hypotheses, and draw conclusions about larger populations, thus ensuring research findings are evidence-based and reliable.
88
What are descriptive statistics, and how are they used?
Descriptive statistics summarize and describe key features of a dataset (e.g., central tendency, variability, distribution). They help researchers quickly see patterns or trends in the data through measures like mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and by using visual representations such as graphs or charts.
89
Define “central tendency.” Which measures are included, and how can outliers affect them?
Central tendency refers to the middle or typical value in a dataset. It includes:
- Mean: Arithmetic average; can be skewed by extreme scores.
- Median: Middle value when data are ordered; less sensitive to outliers.
- Mode: Most frequently occurring value; useful in categorical data.
Outliers can distort the mean, making the median or mode more informative in heavily skewed distributions (e.g., income data).
90
What is variability, and what does a large or small standard deviation mean?
Variability measures how spread out data points are. Standard deviation is the square root of variance, reflecting average distance from the mean.
- Large Standard Deviation: Scores are widely dispersed.
- Small Standard Deviation: Scores are clustered around the mean.
91
When is a correlation said to exist between two variables?
A correlation exists if changes in one variable systematically relate to changes in the other (they “co-vary”). This can be a positive correlation (both increase together) or a negative correlation (one increases while the other decreases).
92
What is a correlation coefficient, and what do the values indicate?
The correlation coefficient (r) ranges from -1 to +1. Values near ±1 indicate a strong relationship, while values near 0 indicate little or no relationship.
- Positive (0 < r ≤ 1): Variables move together (↑↑ or ↓↓).
- Negative (-1 ≤ r < 0): Variables move in opposite directions (↑↓ or ↓↑).
- 0: No apparent relationship.
A perfect correlation (±1) is extremely strong but does not imply one variable causes the other.
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93
How do correlations help with prediction, and why is correlation not causation?
A strong correlation means changes in one variable can be used to predict changes in the other. However, correlation ≠ causation because a third factor or coincidence could explain the relationship. Experimental control is needed to confirm cause-effect.
94
Why does a strong correlation not necessarily mean causation, and what if no correlation exists?
- A strong or perfect correlation does not prove that one variable causes the other. Hidden factors (third variables) or reverse causation could be at play.
- If no correlation exists, the two variables are unlikely to have a causal relationship.
95
Give original examples of positive and negative correlations that are not causal.
- Positive Correlation: Ice cream sales and beach attendance—both increase in warm weather, but selling ice cream doesn’t cause people to go to the beach.
- Negative Correlation: Winter clothing sales and hours of daylight—as one goes up, the other goes down, both driven by seasonal changes.
96
What are inferential statistics, and why are they crucial in research?
Inferential statistics allow researchers to draw conclusions about a population based on sample data. By using probability-based tests (e.g., t-tests, ANOVA), researchers determine the likelihood that observed patterns are genuine rather than due to chance. This is essential for making generalizations from limited data.
97
What is replication, and why is it useful?
Replication is repeating a study to verify whether the original findings hold up under similar or different conditions. Consistent replication increases confidence in the validity of results and is a cornerstone of scientific progress, helping to refine or challenge existing theories.
98
Define “sample,” “population,” and “sampling bias.”
- Population: The entire group a researcher wants to study.
- Sample: A subset of the population selected for the study.
- Sampling Bias: Occurs when the sample doesn’t accurately represent the population due to systematic selection errors, potentially skewing study results.
99
What is the placebo effect?
The placebo effect is a beneficial change in a participant’s condition resulting from the participant’s expectations about an inert treatment rather than the treatment’s active ingredients. It highlights the power of belief in influencing outcomes.
100
How do social desirability bias, response sets, and halo effects pose problems for researchers?
- Social Desirability Bias: Participants give answers they think are more acceptable or “better,” distorting true responses.
- Response Set: Individuals habitually respond in a particular way (e.g., always “agree”), regardless of question content.
- Halo Effect: A general impression (positive or negative) influences specific ratings.
These biases affect data quality by distorting the accuracy of participants’ self-reports or researchers’ evaluations.
101
What is experimenter bias, and how does the double-blind procedure minimize it?
Experimenter bias occurs when a researcher’s expectations unintentionally influence the study’s outcome (e.g., interpreting data to support their hypothesis or signaling desired responses to participants).
A double-blind procedure helps minimize bias by ensuring that neither the participants nor the experimenters know which group (experimental or control) participants are in. This prevents researchers’ expectations from affecting how they treat participants or interpret results and also keeps participants from being influenced by knowing their group assignment.
