Understanding Normal & In Utero Flashcards
What Makes a Good Theory?
- Explains
- Predict
- Increase understanding
- Testable - can be disproven
- Specific
- Falsifiable
Biological and Evolutionary Theories
Genetics and epigenetic interact with the environment
Genotype vs. phenotype
- genotype: specific genetic material on individual chromosomes
- phenotype: obsersved characteristics
Patterns of inheritance
- dominant-recessive pattern
- polygenic inheritance: many
genes influence a trait
- multi-factorial inheritance: genes and environment
- mitochondrial inheritance: inherit genes from the mother’s egg
What is Epigenetics?
Epigenetic’s: the study of changes from modification of gene expression (not altered genetic code)
- epigenetic markers regulate gene expression by turning genes on and off
- Dr. thorenburg - father of epigenetic’s
What is the 100-year Effect?
- the things the mother does during pregnancy not only effect her fetus, but her child’s fetus
○ What I eat, my physical activity, and my environment affect the development of my baby, and also my grand baby, because my daughter carries her daughters eggs in my uterus
What is the U-shaped curve?
- Babies born with low birth weight and high birth weight has same high risk of developing chronic disease (than those with normal birth rate)
What are Psychoanalytic Theories?
- developmental change happens because of the influence of internal drives and emotions on behaviour
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
- behaviour is determined by conscious and unconscious
processes - libido is an instinctual sexual drive
- personality structure has 3 parts that develop over time (Id, Ego, Superego)
3 Parts of Personality (Freud)
Id - base instincts
- present at birth
- driven by pleasure
- is selfish and demands gratification
- A newborn is all id: they cry when hungry, defecate when the urge strikes
- “i want it now”
Ego - Mediates Id
- develops around age of 2
- guided by logic and reality
- delays gratification
- “we need to plan and wait to have it”
Superego - Morality
- develops at age 5
- guided by guilt
- “you cant have it, its not right”
5 Stages of Development (Freud)
- Oral (0-2 yrs)
- infant achieves gratification through oral activities (thumb sucking, feeding)
- Too much indulgence OR too little stimulation = fixation
Fixation: smoking, overeating, passivity - Anal (2-3yrs)
- child responds to some demands of society (ie. bowel an bladder control
Fixation = person who is compulsively organized or lacks self-control and is sloppy - Phallic (3-7yrs)
- becomes aware of sexuality; learns difference b/w males and females
Fixation = vanity or recklessness - Latency (7-11 yrs)
- focus is on friendships
- sexual urges are quiet
Fixation = NONE - Genital (11-adult)
- focus is sex and production
- learns to deal with opposite sex
- if they have successfully completed other stages, they will have mature sexuality and interest in others
What is a Fixation?
- If you do not move through stages successfully, you will get stuck/fixated in one
What is a Defense Mechanism?
- unconscious physiological operation that functions to protect a person from anxiety-producing thoughts, feelings related to internal conflicts, outer stressors
- If you cant not resolve a conflict, you will experience this fixation in later life
Criticisms of developmental stages/fixations (freud theory)?
- NOT testable
- Not falsifiable
Still follow this bc:
- One of the 1 st theories
- Basis for other theories
Psychosocial Theory (Erikson)
- The choices we make are focused on meeting cultural and social needs rather than biological ones
- societies expectations and relationships motivate our behaviour
- driven by conscious thoughts (not unconscious urges)
- believes we need to move through and resolve 8 conflict
8 Psychosocial Stages (Erikson)
- Infancy (0 to 18 months)
- Early Childhood (2 to 3)
- Preschool (3 to 5)
- School Age (6 to 11)
- Adolescence (12 to 18)
- Young Adult (19 to40)
- Middle Adulthood (40 to 65)
- Maturity (65 to death)
Stage 1
Infancy (0 to 18 months):
- Conflict: Trust vs. Mistrust
- Imp Events: Feeding/Comfort
- Key Question: Is my world safe?
- Outcome: Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.
Stage 2
Early Childhood (2 to 3):
- Conflict: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
- Imp Events: Toilet Training/Dressing
- Key Question: Can I do things by myself or need I always rely on others?
- Outcome: Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy, while failure results in feelings of shame and doubt
Stage 3
Preschool (3 to 5):
- Conflict: Initiative vs. Guilt
- ImpEvents: Exploration/Play
- Key Question: Am I good or bad?
- Outcome: Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this state leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt
Stage 4
School Age (6 to 11):
- Conflict: Industry vs. Inferiority
- Imp Events: School/Activities
- Key Question: How can I be good?
- Outcome: Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Stage 5
Adolescence (12 to 18):
- Conflict: Identity vs. Role Confusion
- Imp Events: Social Relationships/Identity
- Key Question: Who am I and where am I going?
- Outcome: Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.
Stage 6
Young Adult (19 to 40):
- Conflict: Intimacy vs. Isolation
- Imp Events: Intimate Relationships
- Key Question: Am I loved and wanted?
- Outcome: Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
Stage 7
Middle Adulthood (40 to 65):
- Conflict: Generatively vs. Stagnation
- Imp Events: Work and Parenthood
- Key Question: Will I provide something of real value?
- Outcome: Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
Stage 8
Maturity (65 to death):
- Conflict: Ego Identity vs. Despair
- Imp Events: Reflection on life
- Key Question: Have I lived a full life?
- Outcome: Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
Criticism of Psychosocial Theory
- Milestone are not unique to each age - they can happen at any age
- You can also go back
○ Not everyone will face crisis and continue to move forward after they resolve it
What is the Humanistic Alternative?
- most important internal drive is to achieve one’s full potential
- self actualization is the ultimate goal in life
- To reach self-actualization, you have to have all of your lower level needs: physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs,
Critique of the Humanistic Alternative?
- Does not define what self-actualization actually means
- Not very specific, more able to generalize
What are Learning Theories?
- focus on how experiences in the environment shape the child
- human behaviour is shaped
by classical and operant conditioning
**Classical Vs. Operant Conditioning
Pavlov Classical
- A neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to produce an automatic response. Over time, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits the conditioned response by itself
- A learned response = conditioned response
- ie. rang a bell so the dogs would salivate to the sound of the bell as they knew food was coming
Skinners Operant
- Reinforcing by punishing or taking something away
- Behaviour is shaped and maintained by reinforcement (increasing behaviour) or punishment (decreasing behaviour
- Positive reinforcement: adding something to encourage a behaviour (ie. giving a cookie for cleaning a room)
- negative reinforcement: when taking something unpleasant away from a situation encourages behaviour (ie. alarm clock going off)
- Punishment: effort to stop behaviour (ie. Follow an action with something unpleasant )
Criticisms with Learning Theory?
- Behaviours are not always permanent
- Testing proposes ethical issues
- Stronger in ability to test and predict: can change the stimulus, reward and punishment
- Does not account for all ages
- Does not account for free will
○ Teens making conscious decisions
○ Ie. Going out and getting drunk then having class the next day
What are the 4 Cognitive Theories?
Cognitive Theories: emphasize aspects of development
- Piaget
- Information Processing
- Vygotsky
- Bandura
Piaget Theory of Cognitive Development
based on:
- Scheme - categories of knowledge/ mental boxes of concepts (ie. we have schemes for “soft”, “sour” etc,.)
- internal structure that provides us with procedure to follow (not actively thinking about it, just do it) - Assimilation - how an experience is similar to what we already know to make sense of an experience (ie. his voice sounds a lot like yours)
ex. tying shoe - Accommodation - making sense of a new experience by adding new scheme (ie. this food is unlike anything I’ve tasted before = new category of bitter-sweet foods)
- Equilibrium - process of balancing assimilation and accommodation to make scheme that fit the new environment - learn what works and doesn’t
Piagets 4 Stages of Cognitive Development
- Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs)
- rely on use of motor and sensory skills (experience world through sense)
- object permanence developed
- language used for demand - Pre-operational (2-7 yrs)
- children use symbolic thinking (ie. language, gestures)
- imagination is strong
- conservation developed - Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs)
- concepts are understood (when linked to situations) - Formal Operational (11+)
- can think logically and abstractly
- strategize and plan
- concepts can be applied
Criticism of Piagets Cognitive Development Theory
- overemphasizing the role maturation plays in cognitive development
- Underestimating the role culture and interaction plays in cognitive development
Information Processing
- the computer is alike human thinking in terms of memory processing
- we get information, it gets transferred to long or short term memory and can be retrieved
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
- learning through language, social, and cultural interactions
- Believed a person’s potential abilities can be realized if given the guidance from others
What is Scaffolding?
Scaffolding: when a child gets guidance from an adult to do skill they are not capable of doing on their own
- If they do this during the zone of proximal development, they will be able top master the skill on their own
- Ie. Using 2 fingers to help a child learn to walk
Piaget VS. Vygotsky
Piaget
- minimal emphasis on sociocultural context
- learning is based on scheme, adaptation, assimilation, accommodation
- support children to explore their world
Vygotsky
- strong emphasis on sociocultural context
- learning is based on zone of proximal development and scaffolding
- make opportunities for children to learn with others
Bandura
- learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modelling
- you dont have to be able to do something to learn something
- people are both influenced by surroundings and influence their surroundings
What is Systems Theory?
- personal and external factors form a dynamic integrated system
- it is not just about the context of the environment, but that we influence the environment and the environment influences us
Brofenbrenner Bioecological System Theory
- development explained in terms of the relationships
between people and their environments, or context
Ecological Systems Model
Microsystems
- Impact a child directly
(parents, teachers, friends)
Mesosystems
- Indirectly impacts the child
(the relationship between parents and school)
Exosystem
- Larger institutions: mass media, healthcare system
that impacts families, friends, and schools
Macrosystem
- broader cultural values and beliefs
Chronosystem
- changes which occur during a childs life (ie. birth of a new child)
What is the problem with all of these theories?
- All white men
- Understanding development has created gaps in understanding because they were only created by a non-diverse group of white males
○ Perspectives are missing
- Understanding development has created gaps in understanding because they were only created by a non-diverse group of white males
The 1st Stage: Conception
- Women are having children later
- Women are having more twins, triplets etc,.
○ UVF is the largest contributor to that - AMA (Geriatric pregnancy) - having a baby after the age of 35, is becoming more common
○ Women are beginning to prioritize different things - can they afford it, they want to start their career - AMA leads to increase in used of assisted reproductive tech
○ fertility drugs
○ freezing eggs
○ artificial insemination
Pregnancy and Prenatal Development
Antenatal
- conception to postpartum (6-8 wks after birth)
Pregnancy
- woman’s body is nurturing a
developing embryo or fetus- 40 weeks
Prenatal
- process that transforms a zygote into a newborn
Pregnancy Trimesters
First (3 months)
- from zygote
implantation to 12 weeks
Second (3-7 months)
- 12 -24 weeks
- you begin to feel the fetus
moving
Third (7 months - birth)
- 25+ weeks increased
emotional attachment to
the fetus
Key issues in 1st trimester
○ Ectopic pregnancy
○ Bleeding
○ Malnutrition
- Malnourish occurs bec of morning sickness - everything they eat is coming back up
- Hyperemesis - extreme form of morning sickness
○ Miscarriage
○ Abnormal urine/blood tests
○ Increased blood pressure
Key issues in 2nd trimester
- increased blood pressure
- bleeding
- premature labour
- bladder infection
- toxemia/preeclampsia
○Preeclampsia: sharp spike in blood pressure
○ Eclampsia = mores severe and can include seizures or coma
Age of Viability
- Age of viability: 23 weeks
○ If you go into labour before that, they wont do anything because the age of survival is low
○ Just because a baby survives, does not mean it has a normal growth trajectory- Age of viability is getting younger because more technology and precision medicine - we are better able to save younger babies
Youth with complex care conditions…
- is a small group with high medical needs
- consumes 1/3 of child healthcare spending
Issues in Prenatal Development
- Genetic Disorders
- autosomal dominant
disorders (i.e. Huntington’s
disease, extra fingers);
- autosomal recessive
disorders (i.e. sickle-cell,
cystic fibrosis)
- sex-linked
recessive disorders
(i.e.red-green colour
blindness, missing front
teeth) - Chromosomal Errors
- trisomy (3 copies- i.e.
Down Syndrome)
- anomalies with sex
chromosomes (Turner’s
syndrome) - Teratogens
- things the mother does that can influence the baby/agents causing fetal damage
- greatest risk is in 1st 8 weeks
- ex. Smoking , Alcohol , Drugs, Vaping, Cannabis
Effects of Preterm babies
- cerebral palsy
- cognitive impairment
- visual and hearing impairment
- poor health and growth
- behavioural and social-emotional problems
- Some preterm children may not experience any of these effects
Effects of Low Birth Weight
- negative effects on mental and motor development and
growth at 9 months to 2 years of age - effects on physical and mental development seems to
lessen over time but the growth effects do not
LBW - 5lbs 5 oz
VLBW - > 3.9 lbs
ELBW > 2.3 lbs
Normal - 5.8-8.13
Canada average - 8lb 7 oz
(for context)
2 Types of Births
Hospital
- OB or Midwife in birth suites (with a bed, tub, yoga ball, and all medical equipment)
Home Birth
- Midwife
- has all comforts of home and medical equipment of a rural hospital
Is Home Birth Safe
- The likelihood of another home birth increases
- Home birth is offered to women with no risk factors
○ Can not have multiples
○ Can not have pre existing conditions
○ They can not be induced - Low risk women have as good (better) outcomes than hospital birth bec..
○ Less stressful
○ Less risk of infection
○ Only low-risk babies are delivered at home
○ Both low and high-risk babies are delivered at the hospital’s
4 Stages of Labour
Stage 1
- uterus muscles start to tighten (contract) and then relax
- contractions help
to thin (efface) and open
(dilate) the cervix so the
baby can pass through
the birth canal
- braxton hicks - false labour
Stage 2
- cervix is dilated completely (10cm) and baby is born
- an episiotomy can be performed ( incision made bw vagina and anus to avoid tissue tearing)
Stage 3
- occurs after baby is born
- you have contractions until the placenta is delivered
Stage 4
- the first few hours after birth (breastfeeding etc)
- massive hormone dump
- Common for women to shake, feel cold
How Fetal Distress Occurs
- after 40 weeks, there is risk of placenta death
- Fetal heart rate deceleration is a sign that the baby has to be delivered
- during the process of birth some babies go into fetal distress (sudden change in fetal heart rate)
- anoxia (oxygen deprivation) can result in death or brain damage
