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GCSE Edexcel geography > UK's Evolving Physical Landscapes > Flashcards

UK's Evolving Physical Landscapes Flashcards

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1
Q

Oldest rocks

A

Igneous

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2
Q

Extrusive igneous rocks

A

When magma from under the ground erupt and the lava cools to form rock.
Finely grained/ uniform/ glassy texture

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3
Q

Why are extrusive igneous rocks porous

A

Gas bubbles from eruption produce holes

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4
Q

Example of extrusive igneous rocks

A

Basalt

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5
Q

Intrusive rocks

A

When magma cools inside the earth, later exposed by weathering/erosion.
Coarsest grained
Little alignment

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6
Q

Example of intrusive rocks

A

Granite

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7
Q

Sedimentary

A

Formed over millions of years.
Made when sediments are compacted.
Contain eroded rocks/fossils/ minerals.

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8
Q

Example of sedimentary

A

Sandstone
Limestone
Chalk
Clay

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9
Q

Metamorphic

A

Other types of rocks subjected to extreme heat/ pressure vía igneous activity

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10
Q

Where is the majority of the UK’s upland areas? What type of rocks are these?

A

North and West

Metamorphic/ igneous (more resistant)

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11
Q

3 ways past tectonic processes have shaped today’s landscapes

A 
ACTIVE VOLCANOES (magma cooled to form igneous rocks) 
PLATE COLLISIONS (folded/uplifted rocks forming mountain ranges) (intense heat/pressure forms metamorphic rocks)
PLATE MOVEMENTS (long time ago Britain was in tropics and so submerged) (Carboniferous limestone from warm shallow seas and chalks/clays formed in shallow seas/swamps)
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12
Q

Granite characteristics and landscapes

A

V resistant and impermeable so forms uplands and moorlands.

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13
Q

Moorlands

A

Large areas of waterlogged land and acidic soil w low growing vegetation.

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14
Q

Carboniferous limestone characteristics and landscapes

A

Rainwater carbonation weathers it along joints to create pavement, caverns and gorges
Permeable (dry valleys/ resurgent rivers )

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15
Q

Resurgent rivers

A

Rivers that pop out at the surface when limestone is on top of impermeable rock.

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16
Q

Slate and schist characteristics and landscapes

A

V hard/ resistant/ layered/ big crystals/impermeable

Form rugged, upland landscapes w waterlogged/ acidic soils

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17
Q

Chalk and clay characteristics and landscapes

A

Chalk = harder than clay/ permeable
Forms escarpments in uk lowlands and cliffs at coast w one side steep/ one gentle
Water flows through and emerges as spring when meets impermeable rock.
Clay=soft/unresistant/impermeable
Forms wide and flat valleys, streams, rivers and lakes.

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18
Q

What happened to uk during last glacial periods?

A

Parts of uk covered in ice sheet (Scotland wales and majority of north)

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19
Q

Effects of ice on uk landscape

A

V powerful so erodes landscape via plucking/abrasion.

Deposited material as melted.

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20
Q

Physical processes that alter the landscape

A

WEATHERING (mechanical, biological or chemical)
EROSION
POSTGLACIAL RIVER PROCESSES- (melting ice contributed to river’s power in eroding the landscape, leaving distinctive landforms.
SLOPE PROCESSES (including mass movement)
CLIMATE

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21
Q

Soft rock characteristics

A

Easily eroded
Creates less rugged/steep cliffs
Creates bays

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22
Q

Hard rock characteristics

A

Resistant to erosion
Creates high/steep/rugged cliffs
Creates wave cut platforms/ headlands w caves, arches and stacks

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23
Q

Joints vs faults

A

Joint= small crack in rock
Fault = large cracks in rock
Both increase erosion rates in rock

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24
Q

Factors affecting erosion

A 
Geology
Geological structure
‘Wave climate’
Local currents/tidal range
Ground water levels
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25
Q

Tidal range

A

Difference between high/low tide

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26
Q

Concordant coastline

A

When Alternating bands of hard and soft rock parallel to the coast.

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27
Q

Discordant coastline

A

When alternating band of hard/soft rock are perpendicular to the coast.

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28
Q

Features found on concordant coastlines

A

There are fewer as their coast is eroded at an equal rate, they produce coves.

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29
Q

Discordant coastline features

A

Headlands and bays

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30
Q

3 ways humans have changed the landscape

A

Agriculture
Forestry
Settlements

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31
Q

How has agriculture changed the landscape for the good?

A

:) generated income supports local economy, arable farming supports rare birds, hedges/field margins=bat wildlife corridors

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32
Q

How has forestry affected the landscape for the better?

A 
Creates local jobs
Provides timber
Coniferous forests prevent soil erosion and afforestation (decrease in conifers?)
Provides habitats for varying wildlife
Enhance landscape?
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33
Q

Effects of settlements on landscape for good

A

Local materials are used

Settlements built are sheltered from naturally formed slopes

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34
Q

Weathering

A

Breakdown of rocks where they are

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35
Q

Erosion

A

When rocks are broken down and carried away by something.

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36
Q

Mechanical weathering

A

Breakdown of rock without changing its chemical composition.

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37
Q

How are fault scarps formed?

A

Plate moved forward.
Convection current caused pushed up land.
Rocks snapped/ tilted (over series of earthquakes) to create deep ridge known as fault scarp.

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38
Q

Example of fault scarp

A

Giggleswick scarp

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39
Q

Process of glaciation

A

Ice age creates glaciers which slowly move down valley.
They move/increase in size while eroding valley (plucking and abrasion) to make valley deeper/wider.
Postglacials results in wide and deep u shaped valleys
Can be used as upper course of river.
Weathering can make slopes less steep.

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40
Q

Physical processes that can affect a landscape

A 
Weathering
Erosion
Deposition
Slope processes
Tectonic events
Geology
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41
Q

Scarp

A

Slope

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42
Q

Vale

A

Valley

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43
Q

Scree

A

Lose and angular pieces of rock caused by freeze thaw weathering

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44
Q

Misfit stream

A

Small stream which is tiny in comparison to the landscape

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45
Q

Alluvium

A

Sediment

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46
Q

Where is freeze thaw weathering more common?

Why?

A

In north

Wetter/colder climates

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47
Q

Freeze-thaw weathering process

A

Water in cracks/joints freeze (and so expand) putting pressure on the rock.
Melts, leaving wider/weaker crack
Repetition of this results in rock shattering and scree at slope foot

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48
Q

Slope process examples

A 
Rockfall 
Mudflow
Landslides
Glaciation
Soil creep
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49
Q

Rockfall

A

Rock free fall from steep cliffs due to loosening from freeze-thaw weathering

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50
Q

Mudflow

A

After heavy rain, if no vegetation to hold soil, saturated soil flows over impermeable subsoil.

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51
Q

Landslides

A

Ocasional rapid movement of earth/rock along concave plane due to heavy rain soaking overlying heavy rock and sliding over impermeable rock.

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52
Q

Soil creep

A

Wet and dry causes expansion/contraction of soil particles which slowly move down slope.

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53
Q

Anticline

A

Dome of folded rocks

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54
Q

The Weald

A

Once was anticline, is now alternating strata of more/less resistant rock (scarp and vale topography)

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55
Q

Scarp and vale topography

A

Landscape consisting of roughly parallel scarps w intervening valleys.
Resistant = form steep escarpments
Softer= lower / flatter

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56
Q

Examples of physical weathering

A

Temp change (expansion / contraction weakens rocks)
Wind/rain/waves (wear rock over time)
Freeze-thaw

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57
Q

Examples of biological weathering

A

Plant roots expanding rock faults

Burrowing animals wearing down rocks

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58
Q

Chemical weathering

A

When a rock’s mineral composition is changed

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59
Q

Examples of chemical weathering

A

Acid rain dissolves alkaline rocks like limestone

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60
Q

Formation of dry valleys as a part of postglacial river processes

A

During/after ice age water froze in chalk (impermeable) so freshwater formed rivers/valleys which seeped through chalk when weather warmed.

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61
Q

Comparison of Lake District with The Weald

A

LD has rough, resistant and jagged igneous rocks while W has undulating hills w less resistant rock.
LD has cooler/wetter climate while W has warmer/drier climate.
LD has physical weathering while W has biological/chemical weathering.
Rockfalls/landslides/misfit streams occur in LD while soil creep/dry valleys occurs in W

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62
Q

How has agriculture changed the landscape for the bad?

A

Decline in arable farming= arable plant/wildlife reduction, scrub encroachment occurs due to traditional practice decline, agricultural chemicals = chalk grassland decline, farming harms environment, overgrazing=soil erosion=water pollution

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63
Q

Pastoral farming

A

Farming aimed at producing livestock

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64
Q

Arable farming

A

Where farmers low land, sow seeds and grow plants to harvest.

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65
Q

Conifer

A

A tree which bears cones/ needlelike leaves typically evergreen.

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66
Q

How has forestry affected the landscape for the worse?

A

May push out other vegetation
Debase landscape?
Deforestation leads to ancient tree extinction

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67
Q

Effects of settlements on landscape for bad

A 
Loss of land distinctiveness
Decline in community facilities 
Displacement of vegetation/wildlife
Pollution
Deforestation
Water/power consumption
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68
Q

Why’s coast important?

A 
Wildlife
Trade
Beauty
Fishing 
Energy
Jobs
Tourism
Transport
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69
Q

Transportation

A

Movement of eroded material up,down and along coastline

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70
Q

Deposition

A

When sea deposits material due to loss of energy

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71
Q

3 factors affecting waves

A

Wind duration
Fetch
Wind strength

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72
Q

Fetch

A

Distance travelled by wind

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73
Q

Destructive wave

A

High energy wave over long fetch, w high wave height in proportion to length.
Stronger backwash than swash
Erode coast and create flat beaches/cliff retreat/steep/narrow coast

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74
Q

Breaker of destructive waves

A

Plunging breaker

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75
Q

Constructive waves

A

Low energy waves w low heigh in proportion to length w stronger swash tan backwash. Deposits material on beach to create berms.

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76
Q

Breaker in constructive waves

A

Spilling breaker

77
Q

4 types of erosion

A

Attrition
Abrasion
Hydraulic action
Solution

78
Q

Hydraulic action

A

Compression of air within cracks in rocks to weaken it

79
Q

Abrasion

A

Pieces of rock/sand grinding surfaces

80
Q

Attrition

A

Smashing of rocks on shore so become smoother

81
Q

Solution

A

Acids in sea water dissolve alkaline rocks (chalk/limestone)

82
Q

6 stage of erosion along a joint

A 
Joint (eroded headland)
Crack (hydraulic action/abrasion)
Cave (further erosion inside crack)
Arch 
Stack
Stump (wave energy is focused)
83
Q

Wave-cut platform formation

A

Wave-cut notch formed by hydraulic action/abrasion at base of cliff undercutting.
Cliff retreat as left unsupported and so collapses.
Wavecut platform is base of cliff left as cliff retreats inland.

84
Q

Impact of uk climate on coastal erosion

A

4 seasons
SW prevailing winds bringing warm moist air from Atlantic and frequent rainfall, leading to weathering and coastal mass movement.
High storm frequency = high energy waves and mass movement (heavy rain)

85
Q

Mass movement

A

Downhill movement of material under influence of gravity

86
Q

What does mass movement depend on

A

Material involved
Amount of water in material
Nature of movement

87
Q

Slumping process

A

When saturated rock (often clay). Slides down concave planes under the pull of gravity.

88
Q

Sliding process

A

When loosened rocks/soil fall down slope in blocks of material together.

89
Q

Coastal retreat

A

When coastline moves further inland affected by factors of erosion.

90
Q

Long shore drift

A

When waves transport eroded material along the coast and deposit when they lose energy.

91
Q

Long shore drift process

A

SW prevailing winds create diagonal swash (sediment E)

Backwash due to gravity pulls sediment straight back down beach.

92
Q

How are sandy beaches created

A

Low energy environments where constructive waves occur and deposit sediment to create gentle slope.

93
Q

How are pebble beaches created

A

In areas of eroding cliffs, exposed to destructive waves producing pebbles from cliff by hydraulic action and abrasion. Is steeper.

94
Q

Berm

A

Ridge of sand marking high tide

95
Q

4 river transports

A

Suspension
Traction
Saltation
Solution

96
Q

Suspension

A

Carrying of fine mud

97
Q

Solution

A

Carrying of dissolved salts

98
Q

Saltation

A

Transport off sand particles

99
Q

Traction

A

Rolling/dragging of gravel and stones

100
Q

Formation of a spit

A

When there’s a sharp bend at the coastline (like at mouth). Longshore drift transports sand/shingle past bend and loses energy so deposits material. Can be curved by strong winds.
Sheltered area behind is protected from waves and material accumulates to become mud flat/salt marsh.

101
Q

Formation of a bar

A

If there’s no river currents to prevent longshore drift, deposition occurs in straight line across to Joplin land on other side.
Behind land forms marshland.

102
Q

Formation of a tómbola

A

When deposition occurs behind an island w low energy environment so island becomes connected to mainland.
Forms bar across to island

103
Q

How have human influenced coast

A

Settlements (villages lost to erosion)
Tourism (local economies, CBA protects tourism spots)
Infrastructure (high economic value, requires coast management w hard engineering)
Construction (dredging clears)
Agriculture (loss of land/fishin w sea levels/erosion

104
Q

Why are coastal areas at risk from climate change?

A 
Thermal expansion of oceans (heat=expansion)
Increased frequency/magnitudes of storms (low pressure fro storms n then surges. Greater temp contrast =stronger winds/storms)
Icecaps melting (sea levels)
POSTGLACIAL rebound (ice pressure released so land rises meaning other land sinks)
Land subsidence (instability of upper land due to changing of geology/foundations)
105
Q

Hard engineering for coast protection

A 
Groynes 
Revetments 
Gabions 
Rock armour
Sea walls
106
Q

Soft engineering for coast protection

A

Beach replenishment

107
Q

Groynes pros/cons

A

Wooden structures perpendicularly lining coast to trap LSDsediment.
Cons: requires maintenance
Uneven beaches
V expensive

108
Q

Revetments pros/cons

A

Wooden ramps lining coast absorbing wave energy while allowing backwash t drain away.
Cons: needs maintenance
Expensive
Prevents swimming

109
Q

Gabions pros/cons

A

Cages of small rocks stacked absorbing wave energy.
Pros:lightweight/cheap
:(can be moved in storm

110
Q

Rock armour pros/cons

A

Boulders lining coastline to absorb energy.

Con: v expensive to transport

111
Q

Sea walls pros/cons

A

Concrete recurred barrier reflecting energy.
Cons: v expensive
Technical to build

112
Q

Beach replenishment pros/cons

A

Dredged sand pumped onto beach as natural barrier.

Cons: needs to be repeated

113
Q

Prevention methods

A

Hold the line
Advance the line
Managed retreat/strategic realignment

114
Q

Hold the line

A

Stopping more erosion and protecting current coastline using mix of hard/soft engineering.

115
Q

Advance the line

A

Reclaiming land and protecting it using hard/soft engineering.

116
Q

Managed retreat/strategic realignment

A

Working w nature to allow gradual erosion using natural ecosystems.

117
Q

Cost benefit

A

Total value of property defended/ total cost for 30 year defence

118
Q

Ways to protect the cliffs

A

Rock groynes
Riprap
Cliff drainage
Cliff regrading.

119
Q

Rock groynes

A

Traps sand to act as buffer zone for cliff

:( expensive

120
Q

Cliff drainage

A

Plastic drains prevent cliff saturation to prevent slumping
:( expensive
:( doesn’t work in large quantities or volumes

121
Q

Cliff regrading

A

Change in Angle of cliff to increase stability/access.
:( involves work/ heavy machinery / tech
:( short term

122
Q

Course

A

The path of a river as it flows downhill.

123
Q

Long profile

A

How gradient changes over different courses

124
Q

Cross profile

A

Shows cross section of river

125
Q

Upper course characteristics

A

Hard and resistant rock, steepsided valley (vertical erosion), narrow/shallow channel (inefficient),
Low discharge, low load, slow velocity, large and angular stones,
Traction/saltation in high flow

126
Q

What features occur in the upper course

A

Waterfalls, v-shaped valley

127
Q

Middle course

A

Soft, less resistant rock, lateral erosion means wide valley, high velocity/efficiency, gentle slopes, wider/deeper channel so higher discharge,
Higher sediment load and more rounded rocks.
Suspension/solution

128
Q

Middle course features

A

Meanders

129
Q

Lower course

A

V wide/flat valley w less resistant rocks, high velocity river, little friction from smooth sides, more efficient, large discharge
Wide / deep channel, high load of well rounded, fine material.
Suspension / solution

130
Q

Lower course features

A

Flood plains, large meanders, oxbow lakes, levees, deltas, estuaries

131
Q

Load

A

Material transported in the river

132
Q

Greater erosion characteristics characteristics

A

High energy/velocity
Deep channel
High gradient
Smooth channel

133
Q

Lesser erosion channels characteristics

A 
Friction
Rough channel
Low velocity/energy
Shallow
Inefficient
134
Q

Drainage basin

A

Area of land drained by river

135
Q

Catchment area

A

Area within drainage basin

136
Q

Watershed

A

Edge of highland surroundings/drainage basin.

Boundary between drainage basins

137
Q

Source

A

Beginning/start of river

138
Q

Tributary

A

Stream/smaller river which joins a larger stream/river

139
Q

Mouth

A

Point where river comes to end, usually entering sea.

140
Q

Confluence

A

Point at which 2 rivers/streams join

141
Q

River discharge

A

Volume of water flowing in river per second

142
Q

What’s discharge measured in

A

Cumecs (cubic meters per second)

143
Q

Hydrographs

A

Graphs showing change in river discharge

144
Q

Overland flow

A

Flow of water via surface run-off

145
Q

Through flow

A

Flow of water through soil

146
Q

Base flow

A

Flow of water through rocks

147
Q

Peak discharge

A

Highest discharge in period of time

148
Q

Basin lag time

A

Delay between peak rainfall and peak discharge

149
Q

Rising limb

A

Increase in river discharge as water flows into river.

150
Q

Recession limb

A

Decrease in river discharge as river returns to normal level

151
Q

Factors affecting storm hydro graphs

A

Geology (impermeable=runoff)

Soil type (impermeable =runoff/ shallow=saturation)
Slope (steep =less infiltration)
Drainage basin type (circular=shorter lag time)
Antecedent conditions
152
Q

Human factors affecting hydrographs

A

Urbanisation (impermeable =runoff / deforestation)

153
Q

Factors of a flashy hydrograph

A 
More flood chance 
Short lag time
High discharge peak 
Reach river fast
Steep rising limb

Possible impermeable surfaces/stormy weather/steep land/increased deforestation / urbanisation

154
Q

Factors of a subdued hydrograph

A 
Less flood chance
Long lag time
Low discharge peak
Reach river slowly
Shallow rising limb.

Possible afforestation, weak storm or narrow flood basin

155
Q

Waterfall

A

Sudden drop along river course, forming when horizontal bands of resistant rock are positioned over exposed, less resistant rock.

156
Q

Formation of a waterfall

A
  1. ) soft rock erodes quicker than hard rock (creating a step)
  2. ) erosion continues, hard rock is undercut forming overhang.
  3. ) abrasion/hydraulic action creates a plunge pool
  4. ) plunge pools gets bigger, increasing size of overhang until is no longer supported and so collapses and waterfall retreats upstream
157
Q

Gorge

A

Steepsided valley where waterfall once was

158
Q

Interlocking Spurs

A

Alternating, extending ridges, creating v shaped valley down which a winding course river flows.

159
Q

Formation of interlocking spurs

A

In uppercourse vertical erosion cuts into valley.

Areas of hard rock aren’t eroded meaning wasting river

160
Q

Meander

A

Bend in the river course

161
Q

Formation of meanders

A

1 water is pushed to outside of the bend w faster speed (so increased erosion via hydraulic action/abrasion)
2 lateral erosion undercuts bank to form river cliffs
3 water on inner bend is slower (deposition) to create a slip-off slope /river beach

162
Q

Oxbow lake formation

A

Meander shape changes over time meaning no erosion narrows the neck of land within meander and they move closer together
During high discharge, river cuts across neck taking straighter/shorter route. Deposition occurs to cut off original meander.

163
Q

Floodplain

A

Area of land covered in water when river bursts banks, caused by meanders on either side of river.
Erosion removes any interlocking spurs to create a wide and flat area on either side.
Height of flood plain increases as river deposits sediment (alluvium) for farming.

164
Q

What three factors have affected the landscape

A

GEOLOGY
GLACIATION
TECTONIC PROCESSES

165
Q

Landforms created by erosion at the coast

A

Wave-cut platforms

Headlands and bays

166
Q

Swash

A

Rush of seawater up the beach after the wave breaks.

167
Q

Backwash

A

Seawater as it recedes down the beach

168
Q

Landforms created by deposition at the coast

A

Spits
Tómbola
Bar

169
Q

How do people affect the coast

A

Agriculture
Development
Industry
Coastal management

170
Q

Hard engineering

A

Man-made structures built to control the flow of the sea and reduce flooding and erosion

171
Q

Soft engineering

A

Scheme set up using knowledge of the sea and its processes to reduce effects of flooding and erosion

172
Q

What is river velocity affected by

A

Gradient
Volume
Shape
Friction

173
Q

How do you measure the velocity of a river

A

Float and a stopwatch

Distance travelled/time taken

174
Q

Infiltration

A

Water filtering into ground through pores in soil

175
Q

Surface run-off

A

Water flowing across the surface

176
Q

Transpiration

A

Moisture from plant/leaves being lost the atmosphere

177
Q

Through flow

A

Water travelling through soil towards the river/sea.

178
Q

Hard engineering methods in a river

A

Floodwalls
Floodgates
Demountable flood barriers
Embankments

179
Q

Flood barriers

A

Temporary flood protection.
:) can be removed
:( expensive
:( risk won’t be put up in time

180
Q

Floodwalls

A

Artificial barriers built along riverbanks designed to increase the height of the river banks and therefore increase capacity.
:( expensive and ugly
:( block view

181
Q

Embankment

A 
Hi banks built along the river banks usually made from earth/natural materials.
\:) prevent flooding of built-up areas
\:) prettier than flood walls
\:( expensive 
\:( can break, danger of overflowing
182
Q

Floodgates

A 
Prevent flooding at very high tides on river estuaries.
\:) shut when surge is forecasted
\:) protect large areas of land
\:( expensive
\:( requires maintenance
183
Q

Dredging

A 
Making a river deeper so that it has the capacity to carry more water
;) reduces flood risk in built-up areas
;)Increases river capacity
\:(Needs to be repeated frequently
\:(Increases flood risk downstream
184
Q

Flood relief channels

A

An extra channel allowing flood water to absorb.
:( expensive
:( can flood as well

185
Q

Soft engineering at rivers

A

Floodplain retention

River restoration

186
Q

Floodplain retention

A

Strategy involving maintenance of the floodplain and not building on it
:)Slows floodwater down
:)Free
:)Maintains floodplains ability to hold water
:(Restricts development and can’t be used in urban areas

187
Q

River restoration

A

Process of making the river more natural and allowing the floodplain to flood naturally.
:)Less risk of downstream flooding as discharge is reduced
:)Little maintenance required
:(Increases local flood risk

188
Q

CMP

A

Catchment management plan produced for each drainage basin, must be sustainable.

189
Q

Three stages of flood warning systems

A

Flood alert
Flood warning
Severe flood warning
(Communicated vía flood risk maps and alerts)

GCSE Edexcel geography (8 decks)

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