UK Politics Flashcards
Oligarchy
A political system in which power lies in the hands of a few privileged elites, not the greater population.
Enfranchised
Given the right to vote
Rule of Law
laws apply to everyone equally including the government and elected officials
first past the post party leader
voters cast a vote for a representative to represent their constituency, the leader of that party becomes prime minister
direct democracy
a form of democracy whereby people make decisions for themselves rather than allowing a representative to do it for them
representative democracy
people will vote for a politician who will represent their views in parliament
absolute monarchy
monarch has absolute power
republic
a country without a monarchy - usually has a head of state instead of
implied repeal
a more recent act of parliament overrules or amends a previous one
why can’t parliament bind its successor?
no parliament can pass a law that a future parliament can not repeal - the current government has as much power as the next
president
head of state and head of government
constitutional monarchy
the monarch accepts the limits given by the constitution
devolution
transfer of power from central government to regional or local governments
public interest balance / wiley balance
does the public interest in releasing potentially sensitive material outweigh the public interest in withholding it
who were the leader of the labour and conservative parties in 1983?
Micheal Foot and Margaret Thatcher
who were the leaders of the labour and conservative party in 1997?
Tony Blair and John Major
what was new labour new danger?
an ad campaign ran by the conservatives to discourage people from voting for new labour - it was removed after the advertising standard received over 150 complaints
bicameral system
Bicameral literally means ‘two-Chamber’. A bicameral parliament is one that contains two separate assemblies who must both agree when new laws are made. The UK Parliament is bicameral because both the House of Commons and the House of Lords are involved in making legislation.
Backbench Business committee
- gives opportunities to backbench Members of Parliament to bring forward debates of their choice
- the first business committee to be established by the House of Commons
Whips
An official of a political party appointed to maintain parliamentary discipline among its members, especially so as to ensure attendance and voting in debates.
Descriptive representation
Do elected officials mirror the demographic characteristics of the population?
The Speaker
an individual who resides over debates, maintains order and ensures any parliamentary rules are followed.
Motion of no confidence
a formal way for MPs to express that they no longer trust the current government. If it passes, it can lead to changes like a new government or an election.
Filibuster
- a tactic used by members of Parliament to delay or obstruct the legislative process
- involves making lengthy speeches or engaging in other time-consuming activities to impede the progress of a proposed law or debate
Parliamentary Sovereignty
Parliament has supreme legal authority. It can create or end any law and no other body or institution can override or set aside its legislation.
Ten minute rule bills
- a way for Members of Parliament to introduce a proposal for a new law
- they get around ten minutes to briefly present their case
- the time limit is often exceeded and they usually have a low chance of becoming law
Parliamentary sovereignty
The Parliament has the supreme legal authority. It can create or end any law, and no other body or institution can overrule or set aside its legislation.
Hereditary Peers
Hereditary peers are individuals who inherit their titles and the right to sit in the House of Lords from their ancestors. Historically, many members of the House of Lords gained their positions based on inheritance. However, the House of Lords Act 1999 significantly reduced the number of hereditary peers, allowing only a limited number to remain.
There are 92 of them.
Ballot Bills
Ballot Bills are a type of Private Members’ Bill used in the House of Commons.
At the start of each new parliamentary year, backbench MPs are invited to enter their names into a ballot. The few MPs who are lucky in the draw may each bring in a Bill of their choosing, known as a Ballot Bill. Ballot Bills take priority over other Private Members’ Bills when time is allocated for debates and so have a better chance of becoming law.
Parliament Act (1911)
The Parliament Act 1911 had a profound effect on Parliament and politics in the 20th century. It followed the constitutional crisis which had begun in November 1909 when the Conservative-dominated House of Lords rejected the Liberal Government’s ‘People’s Budget’. In the two general elections that had followed in 1910 the issue of the House of Lords had dominated debate. The Parliament Bill sought to remove the power of the House of Lords to reject money bills, and to replace the Lords’ veto over other public bills with the power of delay. In addition, it was proposed to reduce the maximum duration of a Parliament from seven years to five. The Parliament Act was passed by the House of Lords by a 131-114 vote in August 1911.
Green papers
- government documents that present proposals for discussion and consultation before formalizing a policy
- they are intended to stimulate debate and gather input from the public, interest groups, and experts.
White papers
- official government documents that outline policy proposals and present plans for future legislation
- they are more formal than green papers and are often published after a period of consultation and discussion
- they provide a comprehensive explanation of the government’s intended course of action and are a crucial step in the policymaking process
Parliamentary Rebellion
MPs voting against the party’s official stance or policies
can occur during a vote on legislation or a key issue
highlight internal disagreements and can impact the unity and stability of a political party
Question Time
- a regular session in the House of Commons where MPs have the opportunity to question government ministers
- this session allows MPs to scrutinize the government, seek information, and hold ministers accountable for their actions and policies
Prime ministers question time is different and occurs for an hour on a Wednesday.
Trustee (Burkean) representation
Trustee representation is a concept where elected representatives use their judgment and expertise to make decisions on behalf of their constituents. Instead of simply following public opinion or specific mandates, representatives act as trustees, believing that they know what is in the best interest of their constituents, even if it may differ from immediate public preferences.
Representation
Representation refers to the idea that elected officials (Members of Parliament, for example) stand for and act on behalf of the interests, concerns, and views of the people who voted for them.
What are the different forms of representation?
There are different models of representation, such as delegate representation (strictly following constituents’ views) and trustee representation (using personal judgment to make decisions).
Free vote
A free vote occurs when members of a political party are allowed to vote according to their individual preferences rather than following the party’s official line. It is often used for matters of conscience or issues that are not considered party-political. During a free vote, MPs can vote based on their personal beliefs or the views of their constituents rather than being bound by party discipline.
Backbenchers
A backbencher typically refers to a Member of Parliament (MP) or legislator who does not hold a ministerial or shadow ministerial position. Backbenchers sit in the back rows of the parliamentary chamber and are not part of the government’s frontbench team or the main opposition frontbench. They play a crucial role in representing their constituents, participating in debates, and scrutinizing legislation. Backbenchers are often seen as independent voices within their party.
ignore
Royal assent is the formal approval given by a monarch to a bill passed by the Parliament, marking the final stage in the legislative process. In the context of the United Kingdom, once both Houses of Parliament (the House of Commons and the House of Lords) have approved a bill, it is sent to the reigning monarch for royal assent. While it is a constitutional formality, royal assent is rarely refused. Once granted, the bill becomes law and is officially part of the legal framework.
Public bill committee
A Public Bill Committee in the UK Parliament is a group of members who review and discuss the details of proposed laws that affect the public. They can suggest changes and amendments before the bill becomes law.
Salisbury-Addison convention
The Salisbury-Addison Convention is an informal agreement in the UK that suggests members of the House of Lords usually don’t block laws promised in the winning party’s election manifesto. This helps avoid clashes between the elected House of Commons and the appointed House of Lords.
Lords spiritual
“Lords Spiritual” are bishops from the Church of England who have seats in the UK Parliament’s House of Lords. They bring a religious perspective to discussions and decisions in the House of Lords.
Scrutiny
Scrutiny refers to the detailed examination and oversight of government actions, policies, and decisions by parliamentary committees, the media, and other institutions. It involves assessing the government’s performance, holding it accountable, and ensuring transparency in its actions. Scrutiny is a fundamental aspect of democratic governance, promoting accountability and the responsible use of power.
Delegate Theory
Delegate theory in politics means that elected representatives should follow exactly what their voters want rather than making decisions based on their own judgment or beliefs.
House of lords
The House of Lords is a part of the UK Parliament where appointed members, including life peers and bishops, review and suggest changes to laws proposed by the elected House of Commons.
Presentation Bills
a type of Private Members Bill that is introduced without debate in the House of Commons.
Advance notice must be given in writing by the sponsoring MP
Party Unity
Party unity means how well members of a political party stick together and agree on their party’s ideas and leaders. When there’s good unity, they tend to support the same things; when it’s low, there might be disagreements within the party.
Private members bill
A private member’s bill is a suggestion for a new law made by an MP who isn’t part of the government. It’s a way for individual members to propose ideas, but these bills face challenges in becoming law.
House of commons
the democratically elected house of the UK Parliament, responsible for making laws and checking the work of Government. MPs consider and propose new laws, and can scrutinise government policies by asking ministers questions about current issues either in the Commons Chamber or in Committees.
Parliament Act (1949)
Labour sought to reduce the Lords’ power further, by reducing the time that the House of Lords could delay bills from three sessions over two years to two sessions over one year.
Liaison Committee
The Liaison Committee is made up of Select Committee Chairs. It considers the overall work of select committees, promotes effective scrutiny of Government and chooses committee reports for debates. It questions the Prime Minister about policy, usually three times a year.
The King/Queens speech
The King’s Speech is the speech that the King reads out in the Lords Chamber on the occasion of the State Opening of Parliament. It sets out the programme of legislation that the Government intend to pursue in the forthcoming parliamentary session.
Front Benchers
A frontbencher is either a Government minister or an Opposition shadow spokesperson. They are so-called because they occupy the front benches on either side of the Chamber when the House is in session, with other party members - backbenchers - sitting behind them.
Life peers
The Life Peerages Act 1958 introduced more people from different professions, and more women. Before the Act, the House of Lords had been made up exclusively of hereditary Peers. A life Peer cannot pass their title on to his or her children. Although life Peers are appointed by the Crown, it is the Prime Minister who nominates them. By convention the Leader of the Opposition and other party leaders can propose a certain number.
Select Comitees
Select committees work in both Houses. They check and report on areas ranging from the work of government departments to economic affairs.
Select committees run inquiries on specific topics. The outcomes of these inquiries are public and many require a response from the government. Select committees also carry out their work through correspondence, by engaging with the public through events and surveys, holding round-table discussions and undertaking visits.
ultra vires
acting or done beyond one’s legal power or authority.
“at one point they argue that the legislation is ultras vires”
Pressure group
A pressure group is a bunch of people or organizations working together to influence the government’s decisions about a specific issue or cause that matters to them. They use various methods to try and shape laws or policies related to their concerns.
Inside pressure group
- close ties with the government
- eg national farmers union
Outside pressure group
- use different measures outside the government
- eg extinction rebellion
pluralism
Pluralism is when a society embraces diversity, allowing different groups with various beliefs and opinions to coexist. It’s about recognizing and respecting multiple perspectives.
political agenda
the changes a party aim to go and make
direct action
protests, petitions, violence, strikes
think tank
A think tank is an organization that conducts research and provides analysis on various issues, often to influence public policy or decision-making.
lobbyist
A lobbyist is someone who advocates for a specific cause or interest, often on behalf of a group or organization, by influencing government officials or policymakers to support their views or goals.
First-Past-The-Post
- used to elect MPs and local councillors
- vote for one person
- candidate with most votes is elected
- 650 constituencies elect one MP
How many voters are there on average in a constituency?
75,000
What does a simple plurality system mean?
The candidate with the most votes is elected as MP
Advantages of FPTP
- fast and simple for voters with a quick result
- leads to strong, single party governments
- clear choice makes governments accountable and gives them a majority
- excludes extremist parties
when was the AV referendum?
2011 - called by the Lib Dem’s as having AV would have benefitted them
only had a 42% turnout
What do scottish parliament elections use?
AMS
Disadvantages of FPTP
- more people vote against a candidate than for them
- MP may have a weak mandate
- votes aren’t accurately transferred into seats
- exaggerates support for winning party with ‘the winners bonus’
- big party bonuses
- encourages tactical voting
- small parties without geographically concentrated support do badly
- lots of wasted votes
- votes have unequal value dependent on if you’re in a safe or marginal seat
what is a constituency surgery?
MPs help their constituents and address any of their issues
- Mark Fletcher who opposed fracking in a vote due to what his constituents said at a surgery
why is FPTP used in the UK?
- suits the interests of the 2 main parties
- 2011 AV referendum was only agreed to after the LDs insisted on it in coalition agreements
Additional Member System (AMS)
- voters get 2 votes, 1 for a constituency representative and 1 for a party
- the party list element adds an element of proportional representation
- gives underrepresented parties in the constituency element greater representation in the party element
What voting system do the Welsh Assembly and Greater London Assembly use?
Additional Member System (AMS)
In Scottish parliament how many members are there and how many are elected by constituencies and party list?
There are 129 members with 73 elected by constituencies and 56 elected by party list members
Advantages of AMS
- very proportional system overall
> in the 1999 Scottish Parliament elections, the Conservatives won 0 constituency MPs despite getting 15.6% of the vote but won 18 additional member seats receiving 14% of seats overall
in the 1997 UK parliament election the conservatives got 17.5% of votes but 0 seats
- strong MP constituency link
- voters have a wider choice then under FPTP
- votes are less likely to be wasted
- coalition governments have proved to be stable
Disadvantages of AMS
- creates 2 different types of members, one with constituency responsibilities and some without
- in smaller assemblies there are sometimes too few seats for the top up (party list) element to correct the seat
element - AMS is more likely to lead to minority and coalition governments which can be seen as weak
- a closed list system is used meaning that the party leadership ranks candidates which can limit people from becoming elected
Why is AMS used in elections?
- chosen as a compromise that retains good elements of FPTP without being as radical as STV
- Labour expected it would keep them in government which it did until 2007 and the rise of SNP
Single Transferable Vote
- used in elections for NI assembly and Scottish Councils
- uses multi member constituencies
- voters number their choices based on preference
- in order to be elected candidates need to reach a quota
- results are calculated using a complex counting process that takes into account 2nd choices
- if a candidate reaches the quota on the first round of counting, they are elected and their second choice votes (people who put them 2nd) are redistributed
- if no one attains the quota, the least popular candidate is eliminated and the second preference of those who voted for this candidate are transferred
- this continues until all seats are filled
Advantages of STV
- highly proportional
- voter choice is very high: voters can choose between candidates standing for the same party as well as between candidates from different parties
- in NI it has created power sharing governments which allows rival representatives to work together which helped to end the troubles
What voting system do the Northern Ireland Assembly and Scottish councils use?
Single Transferable Vote (STV)
Disadvantages of STV
- in large multi member constituencies the member-constituency link may be weak
- power sharing governments may be prone to conflict
- the NI executive is frequently suspended
- the DUP and Sinn Fein now dominate
- counting votes is slow and results are tricky to understand
Why is STV used in NI?
- highly proportional and likely to ensure broadest representation
- important to avoid single-party domination which could derail peace
- the lack of single member constituencies is less of a problem because representatives represent religiously more than they do geographically
Supplementary Vote
- used in elections for London Mayor as well as used to be for police and crime commissioner
- each voter is allowed a first and second preference
- any candidate who receives more than 50% of the first preference is selected automatically, if this doesn’t occur all candidates except the top 2 are eliminated and second preference voters for the two candidates are added to produce a winner
Advantages of SV
- ensures broad support for the winner
- simple and straightforward to use
- gives greater choice than FPTP
- has allowed some independent candidates to win
Disadvantages of SV
- winner doesn’t need to get an absolute majority of votes cast
- voters need to be able to identify top 2 candidates to be able to influence the outcome
- least unpopular are more likely to win rather than the most popular
Why was SV used for electing mayor?
- simple
- only top 2 candidates after the first preference has been counted make it to final round meaning the winner has a clear mandate
name 5 sources of the UKs constitution
statute law
common law
works of authority
international treaties
conventions
what is statute law?
acts of parliament that affect and alter the british constitution
cover laws such as who can vote and how elections are run
what is common law?
laws passed down over the years by legal judgements in courts
the magna carta is based on common law
what does unitary mean?
all power ultimately derives from a central government
name some other countries that have an uncodified constitution
saudi arabia and new zealand
what is royal prerogative?
the historical powers of the monarch now effectively transferred to the prime minister
what are conventions?
unwritten traditions of how things are done
eg the 1945 salisbury addison convention that means lords are not allowed to delay policies from the governing parties manifesto
what are authoritative works?
the writings and books of constitutional experts that clarify and explain the inner workings of the constitution
what are international treaties and conventions?
treaties or agreements that the UK government has signed up to such as the european convention on human rights (ECHR)
Magna Carter (1215)
an agreement between king john and his barons
established the principle right to a fair trial
reissued and partially altered in following years
did not give many rights to ordinary people
Bill of rights
1689
another agreement between king and parliament
parliament must meet frequently
elections must be free
must be complete freedom of speech within parliament known as parliamentary priveledge
no taxation without parliament’s agreement
created and embodied the notion of parliamentary sovereignty
Act of settlement
1701
only protestants could become the monarch or be married to the monarch
established the principle that the monarch existed on parliaments terms not vice versa
parliament acts
1911 and 49
significantly reduced the power and rights of the lords
1911 reduced their power to absolute veto over legislation and a 2 year delay only
1949 act reduced the delay to just one year
both acts increased the powers of the commons over the house of lords
European communities act
1972
brought in by the conservative government of edward heath and marked the entry of the UK into what is now the EU
represented a weakening of parliamentary sovereignty as all british law had to comply with EU law
affected immigration
the 2016 Brexit vote shows how this can be undone
name some recent constitutional developments
creation and expansion of powers to devolved assemblies
major reform of the house of lords
the HRA in 1998
laws that enhance individual rights such as the freedom of information act
the EU withdrawal act 2018
freedom of information act
2000
requires public bodies such as government departments and the NHS to:
- publish and make publicly available certain information about their activities
- allow members of the public to request info from these public authorities via a freedom on information request
to make an FOI request you need to contact the information commissioners office (ICO)
Fixed term parliaments act 2011
weakened the power of the PM to call a snap election
parliament now needs 2/3 majority to call an early election
designed to enhance the stability of a fragile coalition
been repealed
individual rights
apply to individuals such as the right to free expression
collective rights
those that apply to a group of people eg workers rights in specific jobs
how many hereditary peers are there
92
how many church of england bishops are there in the HoL
26
entrenched or inalienable
something that cannot be taken away
why is the commons the dominant house
the 1911 and 49 parliament acts severely limited the power of the lords
executive
the government comprising of all ministers and led by the prime minister
all government ministers including the prime minister are either MPs (most) or peers for example david cameron is in cabinet and therefore government but he is a peer
how many members of the HoL are there
around 800
who are most laws drawn up by?
the government and rubber stamped by parliament after debates and votes
government
the party in power
parliament
the house of commons and the house of lords
is parliament a law making body?
what 2 categories do bills fall into?
yes and no - in reality aside from private members bills, most laws are drawn up in advance by the government (the party in power)
what is scrutiny of the executive
checking that the government is working well and doing what its mean to do properly
how does parliament scrutinise the executive
PMQs
Debate in both chambers
Select committees.
New bills that MPs can amend
Parliament has the final say in all new legislation
A vote of no confidence by the Commons
what is a public bill committee
temporary committee only existing for the specific bill being scrutinised
what is a select committee
permanent committees that have a brief to provide wider oversight of government departments and their actions, they do not scrutinise individual pieces of legislation
what do parliamentary debates do?
one of the main ways MPs get to scrutinise govt
allow the opposition to say how they would do things if they were in government
how many opposition days are there
20
the official opposition get 17, the rest are split between other opposition parties
what is the legislative process?
the steps a bill passes through to become law
where does a bill start?
the HoC or HoL
what are the steps to the legislative process?
first reading
second reading
committee stage
report (consideration) stage
third reading
house of Lords
consideration of amendments
royal assent
first reading
the bill is formally introduced to parliament with no oppurtunity for debate or vote
second reading
The first opportunity for debate questioning and voting.
Amendments can be proposed and voted on.
Governments can face defeat at this stage
> in dec 2017 the commons voted 309 to 305 to give parliament the final say on the brexit deal
committee stage
this is a chance to go over the Bell and any amendments made in the second reading.
Each bill is given its own public bill committee comprised of back bench MPs who got over all the clauses of the bill.
Major changes are rare as the party always has a majority in the committee
pressure groups and individual MPs can submit evidence and address the committee at this stage
report (consideration stage)
Any changes made at the committee stage are discussed and voted on. This is the last chance for MPs to propose future amendments.
third reading
this is a short debate.
No further changes can be introduced at this stage.
A final vote on the bill takes place before it goes for Royal assent provided it has passed through the full stages in both houses
consideration of amendments
each house considers considers the others amendments before the bill goes to royal assent. Either house can agree to or reject amendments as well as suggest new ones. If the amendments are rejected the bill passes back which can lead to a process called ‘ping pong’. If the houses can’t agree the bill falls into deadlock and fails.
The safety of Rwanda bill fell into deadlock.
royal assent
This is the final stage of a bill. Once both Houses agree on it, or just the Commons if the Parliament Act has been used, it then goes to the monarch, who will then officially agree to make the bill an act of parliament.
public bill
laws that will apply to all people and organisations - most legislation falls into this category
private bills
DIFFERENT TO PRIVATE MEMBERS BILLS (PMBs)
only change the law for specific individuals or organisations not the general public
government bills
created and promoted by the government
all members of government would be expected to support
private members bills
bills independently introduced by backbench MPs or peers
either 10 minute bills or selected as one of 20 winners in the annual ballot
few PMBs become law due to time limits on their debates those that do are usually non controversial such as the Botulinum toxin and cosmetic fillers act which prevented botox being administered to under 18s
PRIVATE MEMBERS BILLS ARE ALSO PUBLIC BILLS.
DO NOT CONFUSE WITH PRIVATE BILLS.
how do some people describe the lords?
a ‘think again’ chamber
the lords revise and amend legislation and act as a check on the commons
name a bill that has been introduced to the lords first and why
bills that are non controversial may be introduced to the lords first as they are uncontroversial
one example is the 2021 air traffic management and unnamed aircraft act
why is it rare for the lords to reject a bill outright?
if they do, the parliament act is invoked and the bill automatically becomes law after a year. The Lord can and do make amendments to bills which are subsequently debated and voted on in the Commons. This may cause ping pong.
when has the government amended a clause in a bill due to the house of lords?
Safety of Rwanda bill house of lords amended the bill to add protections for people who may be a victim of modern slavery or human trafficking.
what is the burkean or trustee model?
that voters should trust their MP with acting in their best interests. this means an MP will consider their constituents best interests but will also exercise their own judgement. usually considered as their superior and better educated knowledge.
what is the delegate model?
the opposite of the trustee model
MPs are viewed as mouthpieces for their constituents and entirely bound by their wishes.
mandate theory
MPs are elected to carry out the manifesto promises of their party.
This is the prevalent model in modern British politics, because of how parties work: you vote for a party really rather than an MP and they do what they set out in their manifesto.
It reflects the fact that most people vote for a party rather than an individual MP.
what roles do MPs and peers have?
vote on legislation
sit in parliamentary committees
serve in government as a minister or shadow cabinet
contribute to debates
introduce their own bills to parliament (PMBs)
make media appearances and give interviews
enjoy parliamentary priveledge
what additional roles do MPs have that peers don’t?
serve their constituents
Hold regular surgeries.
Undertake back bench rebellions
Select party leader.
Provide democratic legitimacy to government.
what additional roles do peers have that MPs don’t?
contribute their specialised knowledge in debate (eg if they’re from a background of business or science)
maintain independence.
Revise and advise on legislation
crossbenchers
independent peers (non political party associated)
why do the lords not represent voters directly?
The Lords are an unelected chamber many of its members are affiliated to political party often being retired or defeated MPs so they indirectly fulfil the mandate representation model (being elected to carry out manifesto promises of the party)
what’s the difference between lords select committees and commons select committees?
common select committees:
GENERAL oversight of the workings of government departments
chaired by opposition back benchers
able to select their own areas for investigation and can summon witnesses.
Lords select committees:
investigate SPECIALIST subjects taking advantage of the Lord’s expertise and the greater amount of time compared to MPs
what do public accounts committees do?
they scrutinies value for money in public spending and how efficiently the government delivers public services
they are traditionally chaired by an experienced opposition back bencher and
What do back bench business committees do?
they select topics for debate in Parliament on days not given over to government business and they oversee e-petitions
what do Commons liaison committees do?
they are a group of all of the chairs of the common select committees.
They are usually chaired by a senior and independent minded backbencher of the governing party.
They choose select committee reports for debate in Westminster.
They question the prime minister on aspect of public policy usually three times a year.
how effective and significant are select committees?
select committee produced dozens of report each year
> covered the 2019-21 parliamentary session with the governments handling of the covid 19 pandemic and cladding on flats following grenfell
it is estimated that around 40% of of committee recommendations are accepted by government and implemented
Committee chairs are paid a salary equivalent to that of a junior minister
what is the role of the opposition?
to scrutinise the government
To suggest amendments to bills
To argue what they would do if they were in power.
To provide a government in waiting especially with a shadow cabinet.
To nominate the topics for debate on the 17 opposition days per year
how does parliament influence on government decisions?
the committee system and committee reports
the election of select committee chairs and members
debate and questions
back bench rebellions in the Commons
Informal lobbying of ministers by MPs and peers
Amending legislation especially in the Lords
how is parliaments influence on the government limited?
governments can and do ignore select committee reports.
Select committee are poorly resourced compared to government department.
Government majorities usually see off backbench revolts
Party whips ensure party discipline.
Many MPs aspired promotion so are wary of upsetting the party leadership the government can use its common majority to override the Lord amendments or rejection of a bill using if necessary the parliament act
what are party whips?
MPs in charge of persuading their parties MPs to remain loyal. they do this by argument and something prospect of promotion. All parties use whips.
what is a three line whip?
A parliamentary vote when MPs must follow the voting orders of the whips.
Failure to do so by a minister would lead to resignation or dismissal. Backbenches who frequently rebel are unlikely to be offered a job they want.
what is a free vote?
vote when MPs are free to vote how they wish rather than being instructed to vote a certain way by the party leadership. Votes on matters of conscience such assisted dying or abortion are usually free votes. 
when is party discipline most fragile?
when a government only has a small majority or seeks to get through legislation that is controversial.
how do whips work?
whips work by exerting further control over party discipline by controlling the allocation of MPs to public bill committees
how does the government control civil servants? (select committees)
original osmotherly rules allowed civil servants to be evasive and vague in their answers
however, revised rules say CS must be as helpful as possible in providing accurate and true information.
> In 2016 the home affairs select committee ejected Oliver Robbins, a senior civil servant, for failing to respond adequately to questions about the budget of the U.K.’s border force.
osmotherly rules
this is guidance given to civil servants and other government officials appearing before select communities. Various versions of the rules have been an operation since 1980 but they have never been formally accepted by parliament.
who are laws that the government passes interpreted and enforced by?
the judiciary (judges, magistrates, tribunal members, and coroners)
what is the UK supreme court?
the highest court of appeal in the UK
has the power to make judgements based on the ECHR
does the UK have a unified legal system?
no because there are differences between England and wales and Scotland and Northern Ireland
how is the UK judiciary organised?
hierarchically
what is the judiciary concerned with?
applying law and ensuring that the government and other public institutions such as local councils follow their own rules (rule of law)
what does the judiciary have a crucial role in?
protecting citizens rights
what is the organisation of the judiciary in the UK?
what is judicial independence?
the notion that judges are free from government interference (they are independent)
how is judicial independence maintained?
an independent appointments process
permanent job security
salaries set by independent body
what is judicial impartiality or neutrality?
the notion that judges are neutral or objective when they make judgements and not swayed by personal opinion or popular pressure.
This is backed up by professional training and the requirements that UKSC judges must have lots of legal experience.
what is separation of powers?
the judiciary is separate from parliment and governments in terms of employees and buildings. this is crucial to judicial independence and upholding the rule of law.
what is judicial review?
when a judge reviews the legality of a decision made by a public body (including the government)
how could you argue that the judiciary IS too powerful?
judges are unelected and cannot be removed easily
the HRA 1998 means judges get involved in politics and can clash with the government
judges make huge decisions which can have an impact over life and death
judicial review means judges can force government departments and public bodies to change their policies
how could you argue that the judiciary IS NOT too powerful?
judges need to be independent of politics to be impartial and fair to everyone
judges only interpret laws passed by parliament
judges are experienced legal professionals
the courts make sure that those in power stick to the rules themselves
how are judges appointed?
based on merit and experience
politicians have no real say
all below the SC are appointed by the independent judicial appointments commission (JAC)
why has the judiciary been criticised?
it’s composition in terms of gender, race, education levels and social background.
the most senior levels have been accused of being too privileged, pale and male.
who is the lord chancellor?
the governments senior minister in charge of the law and justice as well as political appointment.
the lord chancellor is a member of the cabinet and in charge of the department of justice.
evidence for a lack of diversity among judges
> under representation of women: 2/12 in the UKSC and 25% in the court of appeal in 2021
lack of black, asian and minority ethnic judges: none in the UKSC and 8% of all judges in 2021
domination of public schools and oxbridge grads: 11/12 of the UKSC justices on 2021 went to oxbridge
does a lack of diversity in the judiciary matter? (yes)
judges don’t reflect society
makes it hard for judges to understand cultural context of some cases
little improvement in diversity in the last decade
reduces public trust
more input from democratically elected representatives would help bolster diversity
does a lack of diversity in the judiciary matter? (no)
judges are chosen based on expertise
exist to apply the law neutrally and professionally
diversity is growing lower down the judiciary
may lead to politicisation of the judiciary
when was the supreme court set up?
2009 following the 2006 constitutional reform act
what did the UKSC replace?
the law lords as the highest court
how many UKSC judges are there
12
how can candidates be elidgible for the UKSC?
2 years in a senior judicial role or 15 years as a barrister or solicitor
what do judges enjoy?
permanent job security until compulsory retirement age of 70
what is the UKSC free of?
political pressure
what are the main roles of the UKSC?
final court of appeal for all UK civil cases and criminal cases from England, Wales and Northern Ireland
his appeal from the general public
Enforces the ECHR in the UK
acts as the final court of appeal for a number of British overseas territories and formal colonies such as Jamaica
what is the appointment procedure to the UKSC?
- vacancies are filled by a special selection commission
- the commission consults with certain senior judges before putting forward a name
- the lord chancellor accepts or rejects the nomination but can’t put forward a candidate themselves
name and describe some cases heard by the ECHR
what is the ECtHR and where is it located?
European Court of human rights located in Strasbourg
what does EU law deal with?
areas overseen by the EU, primarily trade and migration
when has the UK government ignored the rulings of the ECtHR?
in 2005 the ECtHR ruled that a blanket ban on denying prisoners the vote was incompatible but parliment did not change the law
when did devolution begin?
1999
what is devolution?
the delegation of power from the UK parliament in westminster to assemblies in Cardiff, Belfast and Edinburgh
is westminster parliament able to pass laws for any part of the UK?
yes, but in practice it only deals with devolved matters with the agreement of devolved governments
how many members does Senedd Cymru have?
60
how many members does the northern ireland assembly have?
90
what voting system does scottish parliament use?
AMS
what voting system does the senedd use?
AMS
what voting system does the northern ireland assembly use?
STV
what key powers do all 3 devolved bodies have?
Agriculture, Environment, Education, Health, Transport
what powers do all 3 devolved bodies lack?
Foreign policy, Brexit negotiations, defence and national security
devolution timeline (don’t need to know just useful)
had devolution worked in the regions? (yes)
strengthened the union
expanded the powers of devolved assemblies
consolidated peace protests in NI
enabled devolved nations go make laws that suit them best
has devolution worked in the regions? (no)
the result of the full independence referendum in 2014 were close and many people want a second vote
tensions remain in NI
created unevenness across the UK especially prevalent during covid
what were the troubles?
a period from the late 1960s when much of NI was affected by terrorism including bombings and assassinations carried out by terrorists from both communities.
Unionists/protestants wanted to remain part of the UK and Nationalists/Catholics who wanted a united ireland. terrorists belonged to groups such as the ITA or the Ulster defence association
which is the only region of the UK not to have a devolved assembly?
England meaning devolution in the UK is asymmetrical
Instead, England has various tiers of local governments with different degrees of power and responsibility.
unitary authorities
what a single council carries out all the functions of local authorities, including major ones such as education and social care.
what are metro mayors?
nine large cities or regions in England have metro mass who serve several combined local authorities. they are democratically elected.
what are the limits on local government?
they have limited legislative powers (although they can introduce measures such as congestion charges in london)
most functions that involve carrying out responsibilities and roles are decided by central government
most revenue raising is tightly controlled by central government (for example council tax cant be raised)
arguments for an english parliament?
it would bring parity across the UK regarding devolution.
An English Parliament could be located away from the capital and thus reduce London’s current dominance of politics and the media.
It allow an alternative electoral system to be used and therefore resolve the issue of electoral reform
Would resolve the West Lothian question
what is the west lothian question?
Scottish, Welsh and NI MPs have a vote on matters that only affect england whereas english MPs don’t have a vote on devolved matters
Arguments against an english parliament?
England lacked the national identity of Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland.
There is no widespread support.
England is much larger in terms of population than the other regions.
Regional assemblies would add an extra cost and bureaucracy to the UK political system.
There are other ways to resolve the West Lothian question such as EVEL laws
An English parliament would raise the issues of what role the purpose of the Westminster Parliament is
what are EVEL laws?
EVEL - English Vote for English Laws
this is an extra stage that was introduced in the middle of the law making process allowing English MPs to block anything they did not like in bills deemed to be England only. this was abolished in 2021 as the government argued it was too complex and time consuming.
name some of the prime ministers functions
leading the government
selecting the cabinet
being the dominant figure in the core executive
representing the country abroad
hosting UK based international gatherings such as the 2021 Glasgow COP26
being the party leader
chairing cabinet meetings
heading up the civil service
being the monarchs first minister
what is the core executive?
the collective term for key players in government policy making
includes the PM, the cabinet and its various committees, the cabinet office, and senior civil servants
the core executive is more wide ranging that just the executive
what does primus inter pares mean?
the notion that the prime minister is first among equals among fellow members of the cabinet
who is the executive?
the prime minister and cabinet
what are the prime ministers main powers and resources?
prerogative powers
shaping and deciding policy
choosing and promoting or demoting cabinet
high profile media
world leader
able to make use of civil servants
able to claim authority or mandate
how many ministers and key officials are there in the cabinet?
just over 20
when does cabinet meet?
once a week usually on Thursday mornings
what is collective cabinet responsibility?
the principle whereby all members of the cabinet support its decisions in public even if they disagree with them in private
what are cabinet committees?
groups of ministers that make collective decisions, many of them routine. their membership and topics of discussion are decided by the PM. They tend to comprise ministers from several departments to enable a joined up govt.
what is a joined up government?
A policy to make departments in the same government work together
what are some examples of cabinet committees?
European Union Exit and Trade Committee - oversees the UKs exit negotiations with the EU
what is individual ministerial responsibility?
the notion that each minister is personally responsible for the actions and outcomes of their department
This involves answering questions in the commons and the media on behalf of their department
give an example of when a minister was dismissed from breaking individual ministerial code
Priti Patel was forced to resign as international development secretary in 2017 for not being open and honest about secrets meetings with Israeli ministers and business people while on a private holiday in Israel
what is collective cabinet responsibility?
the convention that all ministers and not just those in cabinet are bound by government policies and must defend and promotors them in public, a minister who can’t should resign.
Occasionally this is suspended by the PM when there are clear and open divisions in cabinet such as surrounding Brexit.
Free votes are also not bound.
what kind of democracy is the UK?
representative
name some groups that campaigned for the right to vote
the chartists, the suffragists and the suffragettes
direct democracy
when people make decisions not the government. votes take place on specific questions.
representative democracy
a system of democracy in which people vote for elected representatives. the representatives make decisions on their behalf.
advantages of direct democracy
people can participate directly
the wishes of the people cannot be ignored
people can be motivated to be well informed about politics
decisions have better legitimacy
disadvantages of direct democracy
the public may not fully understand what they are voting on
majority of people may vote for soemthing that undermines the minority
people may vote for emotional reasons in the short term rather than taking a long term view
holding so many votes is slow and expensive
what is a liberal democracy
A type of representative democracy in which the rule of law is followed, the freedom of citizens is protected by the government and many different political parties complete freely to win power.
suffrage acts in the UK?
why were women denied the vote?
traditionally seen as the weaker sex.
Not considered have sufficient education.
Too emotional.
Their place was at home
why were lower classes denied the vote?
wealthy worried their power would be reduced.
working class men were too poorly educated.
May support socialism threatening economic welfare.
Working class often sacrificed in wars
why were certain ethnicities denied the right to vote?
people of colour have been historically under represented in parliament.
> black and Asian voters were less likely than the general population to register to vote in 2019
why have people been denied the right to vote due to age?
Not seen as sufficiently educated
To emotional and unstable
> 18-20 year olds only received the vote in 1969
16-17 year olds were allowed to vote in the scottish independence referendum as it was recognised the decision would effect the rest of their lives. they had a higher turnout than 18-24 year olds
when were the chartists active and what did they do?
1838-48
campaigned for votes for all men over 21
wanted secret ballots, no property qualifications for MPs, pay for MPs, equal sized constituencies and yearly elections to parliament
movement died out but they got their aims in reform acts of 67 and 84 anyway
when were the suffragists active and what did they do?
1860s-1918
peaceful methods like petitions, speeches, marches and letter writing
formed the national union of women’s suffrage (NUWSS) in 1897 which had more than 100,000 members by 1914
factions split to the suffragettes in 1903 due to a lack of achievement
when were the suffragettes active and what did they do?
1903-14
used militant methods such as window breaking, chaining themselves to railings and arson
received harsh prison sentences which they attempted to reduce by hunger striking
emily davidson killed by kings horse in 1913 at derby
movement died down when war broke out
dealt with harshly including being force fed
attracted national attention and coverage
criticised by suffragists for violence
govt refused to give in to violence
funding and membership fell over arson campaign
women were enfranchised in 1918 for their war efforts and likely as the government was eager to return to violence.
when were women given the vote?
women were enfranchised in 1918 for their war efforts and likely as the government was eager to return to violence.
case study of a prisoner attempting to regain their right to vote
John Hirst (imprisoned for manslaughter) appealed to the ECtHR to regain his right to vote in 2005 after being dismissed by the UK high court. the ECtHR agreed with him but the UK govt did not comply with the ruling.
is there a participation crisis?
(yes)
turnout has fallen in recent decades
> in 1950 more than 80% of the electorate voted, in 2001 59% did
some elections have even worse turnout
> police and crime commissioner elections has 15% turnout in 2012
> european parliament elections in 2019 had a turnout of 37%
party membership has fallen
> in the 1950s the tories had more than 2.5 million members and labour over a million, in 2018 the tories had 124,000 members
partisan realignment
trade unions have less members and power
political apathy is high
disillusionment with politicians increased as a result of the 2009 expenses scandal
‘slacktivism’ is higher due to social media
is there a participation crisis?
(no)
turnout in GEs has been rising since 2001 reaching a high of 69% in 2017
turnout in recent referendums has been high
> 85% voted in scottish independence and 72% in the 2016 EU referendum
if people care about an issue they will participate
labours membership has increased in recent years
> SNP membership more than quadrupled after the 2014 independence referendum
minor parties have done well over the last decade
> UKIP won EU parliament elections and received 3.9 million votes in the 2015 general election
pressure group membership has increased
internet movements have become very powerful and influential such as BLM with more than 210,000 people joining protests in the summer of 2020
what was participation in the 2016 Brexit referendum?
72%
partisan dealignment
The electorate becoming less strongly affiliated to political parties as a result of falling party membership numbers and an increase in the number of floating voters (people who don’t consistently vote for one party)
pluralism
The benefit of many different groups influencing the decision-making process
what are some suggested methods for increasing participation?
giving 16-year-olds the right to vote
Online voting
Compulsory voting
Changing the electoral system
Increasing political education in schools
Reducing the membership fees of political parties
More direct democracy 
wasted votes
votes that do not contribute to the election of a political candidate
tactical voting
when a voter does not vote for their preferred party because they do not belive that party will win. instead they vote for another party that has a better chance ususally to stop a party they dislike from winning.
marginal seat
those seats where an MPs majority is small, meaning that it could easily be won by another party
safe seat
those seats in which one party has such a large majority that it is highly unlikely it could be won by another party
majoritarian system
requires a candidate to gain 50%, plus one vote to win. They are not proportional, so I likely to result in majority governments.
proportional system
allocates seats in proportion to the number of votes received by each party. likely to result in coalition governments.
STV as an alternative to FPTP
what are the impacts of electoral systems on election results?
FPTP tends to produce a two-party system with a single party producing a majority government
in recent years more successful minority parties have led to coalitions and minority governments
minor parties thrived when PR was used
> PR is used in EU parliament elections
majoritarian systems such as SV tend to produce a 2 party system
proportional systems such as STV usually result in a multi party system
AMS has allowed a multi party system to emerge in scotland
how does age influence voting behaviour?
> young people were more likely to vote labour than old people (over the age of 39) who were more likely to vote conservative in the 2019 GE
in the 2016 EU referendum a majority of 18-34 year olds of every social class voted to remain whereas a majority of over 55s in each social class voted to leave
turnout increases with age: less than 55% of 18-24 year olds voted in the 2019 GE compared to more than 80% of those 75 or older
how does class influence voting behaviour
class used to be the main predictor of how people would vote
since the 1980s class dealignment has risen
education level was linked to voting behaviour in 2019: voters who were degree level or above were far more likely to vote Labour whilst others were likely to vote conservative
how does gender influence voting behaviour
> some believe women are more likely to support parties that favour strong public services such as the NHS
women were more likely to vote remain
men and women’s turnout is equal
there was a very small gender gap in the 2019 election with women slightly more likely to vote Labour than men this was more pronounced among young people
how does ethnicity influence voting behaviour
black asian and minority ethnic groups are significantly more likely to vote Labour than conservative
> in 2019, 64% BAME voters chose labour
how does Geography influence voting behaviour
rural english area and southern constituencies are more likely be conservative
urban areas particularly London and the north are more likely to be labour, so is south wales
in 2019 the conservatives broke thought labours red wall in the midlands, the north and wales winning some traditionally safe labour seats
regional parties dominate in scotland and NI
what are the three theories of voter choice?
rational choice theory
issue voting
valence issues
rational choice theory
assumes that voters weigh up all the political options logically and vote for the party that will deliver the best result for them
issue voting
voters prioritise one issue about all others and vote based on that
valence issues
issues universally accepted to be important
voters choose a party based on how well that party is likely to perform on those issues
could be things such as the economy, healthcare or education
who were the candidates in the 1983 election and what was the result
Margaret thatcher v Michael foot
thatcher won 397 seats and 42.4% of the vote
foot won 209 seats and 27.6% of the vote
1997 general election
tony blair v john major
conservatives has been in power since 79 and recently tainted by sex scandals
Labour won a 179 seat majority (their best result ever)
New labour
suns support
third way (balance between centre right economic policy and centre left social policy)
conservatives divided over europe (new labour new danger campaign)
blair very charismatic
huge majority allowed for wide policy implementation
what were spin doctors?
political operatives who shape a politician’s message for max positive publicity
used very well in 1997 election
third way
1997 manifesto promise that was a compromise between centre right economic policy and centre left social policy which focused on social justice
2019 general election
Boris Johnson v Jeremy Corbyn
conservatives were a minority and deeply divided
johnson called for a snap election for
December (passed the early parliamentary general election act 2019 to bypass the fixed elections act of 2011)
conservatives won an 80 seat majority taking 54 seats from Labour and broke through the red wall
sun daily mail and express all supported Conservatives
Labour outspent conservatives in social media ads focused on FB and YTB
Both parties excluded minorities from the race in terms of TV appearances
johnson repeated get brexit done
corbyn seen as weak leader
labours brexit position was criticised
2010 general election
david cameron v gordon brown v nick clegg
conservatives: 306
labour: 258
LDs: 52
notable as resulted in a coalition government with cameron and clegg
clegg had performed well in the run up to the election and was well liked
however during his time in office this failed as many people thought the LDs bowed to the will of the tories
clegg performed well in debates
expenses scandal had recently occurred and MPs involved were ordered not to stand
name 5 referendums
UK European communities membership referendum 1975
Greater London authority referendum 1998
UK alternative vote referendum 2011
Scottish independence referendum 2014
UK European Union membership referendum 2016
UK alternative vote referendum 2011
under Lib dem coalition
public failed to understand complexities of AV and campaigns didn’t help
42% turn out
68% voted to keep AV
turnout and rejection levels mean voting system change again is not likely
UK European Union membership referendum 2016
included in 2015 conservative manifesto
included to stop Tory voters switching to UKIP and to placate Eurosceptic in the tory party
leave campaigns were criticised for inaccuracy while remain focused on the negatives of leaving and failed to give positives of staying
72% turnout
52% voted leave 48% remain
cameron resigned as his political gamble had failed
theresa may also remain took his place
public was divided
MPs struggled to agree on a deal
Greater london authority referendum 1998
part of blair’s devolution programme
34% turnout
72% voted yes
london gained its own assembly and an elected mayor
what is the impact of referendums on democracy
positive:
enhance direct democracy
high turnout is evidence of improved political participation give legitimacy to important decisions.
Regular use of referendum since 1998 suggest that they have been effective means of decision-making.
The electorate has surprised the government on several occasion causing shifts in policy that would not have happened otherwise
Negative :
Government still holds the power not the people (they don’t tend to hold referendum that they think they’ll lose, Brexit is exception )
Low turnout suggest that public are not always engaged.
Can threaten Parliamentary sovereignty and representative democracy.
Poor quality campaigns can mislead or confuse the public.
often offer no protection against the tyranny of the majority
which MP broke minister code by perverting the course of justice?
Chris Huhne got his wife to lie to the police that she was driving so he avoided getting speeding points on his driving license which would have caused him to lose it. She caught him cheating and snitched.
resigned as an MP due to personal scandals.
what is a vote of no confidence often described as?
the nuclear option
conservative party origins
dates back to 1834
traditionally represented the wealthy (benjamin disraeli created one nation conservatism to attract working class)
dominated UK politics in the 20th century with 67 years in office
conservative development
accepted post war consensus before thatcher became leader
thatcher moved party sharply to right and adopted a confident foreign policy
2010 coalition
eu referendum
may removed universal free school meals
then failed to win a majority
johnson won and left eu then struggled with covid
thatcherism
thatchers distinct brand of conservatism - included a monetarist economic policy, deregulation of business and finance, privatisation of industry and restriction of trade union powers
post war consensus
the acceptance by both main political parties that britain should retain the post-war settlement (welfare state introduced by the 1945 labour gov)
populist
a person who presents themselves as the champion of the ordinary people and defends their interests against the wealthy elite
labour party origins
labour representation committee formed in 1900 but didn’t become the labour party until 1906
included left wing groups and trade unions
rejected revolutionary socialism and focused on social democracy
did not win a majority until 1945 creating the NHS and a welfare state
socialism
an ideology aiming for equality between people through common ownership of production
social democracy
the democratic version of socialism
development of the labour party
moved to the left after its 1979 defeat by thatcher
blair adopted the third way under new labour which balanced centre right economic policy with centre left social policy - won a landslide
went downhill after war in iraq
brown didn’t recover after 2008 economic crisis
ed milligan’s moved party to the left and was vilified by newspapers
corbyn broke new labour and moved to the left
triangulation
blair’s repositioning of new labour on the political spectrum moving towards thatcherism economic policy but retaining labour social values
liberal democrat origins
formed from 2 different parties - the liberal party and the sdp in 1988
liberal party was one of the main 2 but was pushed into third place by labour
the sdp formed in 1981 when 4 of the main politicians left labour
they were known as the gang of four and joined the liberal party to create the alliance
what is liberalism
an ideology based on freedom including individual freedom and free trade
example for electoral reform
the alliance won 26% of the vote in 1983 but only 23 seats in the HoC
liberal democrat development
charles kennedy oversaw the parties best result of 62 seats in 2005 partly due to the parties opposition of the iraq war
nick clegg formed a coalition in 2010 causing then to raise tuition fees making them unpopular
coalition also reduced public spending
campaigned for remain but failed
policies of the 3 main parties
what is the structure of a political party?
hint: answer is diagram
what 5 functions does a political party have?
representation
participation
recruitment
policy
government
structure and membership of the 3 main parties
how do the 3 main parties appoint a leader?
what are each of the 3 parties methods for establishing policy?
what are some sources of party funding?
membership fees
small donations from members
large donations from wealthy donors
trade unions
state funding
examples of large donations from wealthy donors
blair accepted £1 million donation from F1 tycoon bernie ecclestone
Blair then gave F1 an exemption to the ban on tobacco advertising at sporting events
Frank hester donated £10 million to the tories after making racist remarks about diane abbot
what are the 4 types of state funding for parties?
short money
cranbourne money
policy development grants
support for election campaigns
what is short money?
funds paid to opposition parties to cover administrative costs and make sure they can scrutinise government effectively
what is cranborne money?
funds paid to opposition parties in the HoL to cover administrative costs and enable effective scrutiny
what are policy development grants?
any party with 2 or more MPs is allocated a share of £2 million annual fund to help develop policy
what is support for election campaigns money?
royal mail will send one free campaign mailing to every elector in the UK, and parties receive free airtime for televised election broadcasts
when has party funding been reformed?
the Political parties, elections and referendums acts (PPERA) 2000
> spending limit of £30,000 per constituency on ge campaigns
> donations over £7500 must be reported to the electoral commission
the Political parties and elections act (PPEA) 2009
> allowed the electoral commission to investigate cases and impose fines
> increased the requirement for establishing the source of political donations
example of the newspapers describing corbyn badly
in 2015 the sun described him as ‘the most dangerous man to ever stand for high office in britain’
how many extra votes is murdochs support of blair likely to have won the sun?
one study suggested as many as half a million
how much did labour and the conservatives spend on social media in the 2019 general election?
labour spent £1.4 million and the conservatives £900,000
what factors affect electoral outcomes?
what are some of the policies of minor parties?
what is some evidence for the uk having a multi or a two party system?
what are insider groups?
those that are consulted by the government
what are outside groups?
groups not consulted by the government and instead try and influence political decision making from the outside.
some groups work towards insider status while others are ideologically opposed to the government
insider pressure group case study
outsider pressure group case study
what are causal groups?
those that promote a specific cause such as the housing and homeless charity Shelter.
what are sectional groups?
groups that exist to defend the interests of a particular group or section of society
such as trade unions or the National Education union
what methods do pressure groups working within the system use?
what methods do pressure groups working outside the system use?
what factors affect the influence of pressure groups?
what are some other influences on governments aside from pressure groups?
what is pluralism?
Pluralism describes a situation in which different groups, including pressure groups, compete equally for power and influence. Power is therefore spread across different groups in society. It is the opposite of elitism — the idea that powerful elites dominate society and government.
are pressure groups good for democracy?
parliamentary priveledge
freedom of speech within parliament
