Political Ideologies

Question 1

What is enlightenment?

Answer 1

An intellectual movement that opposed the medieval politics and philosophy of faith superstition and religion

Question 2

What is absolute monarchy?

Answer 2

When the monarch exercises unlimited power over the people as gods representative on earth. The concept of the divine right of kings embodies this notion of royal absolutism

Question 3

What are the origins of liberalism?

Answer 3

The European enlightenment of the 17th and 18th century

Question 4

What did early liberalists argue?

Answer 4

Argued that humans were born free and morally equal and no one naturally has a right to rule over others. All laws and government must be justified and not accepted blindly or based purely on inherited tradition or custom.

This was a direct attack on the form of government at the time: absolute monarchy

Question 5

What belief did the origins of liberalism promote?

Answer 5

A belief in reason, rather than faith and advocated the importance of the individual and freedom

Question 6

What was early liberalism like?

Answer 6

Radical and potentially revolutionary with its idea central to the American Declaration of Independence in 1776

Question 7

What are some different variations of liberalism and when did they develop?

Answer 7

Classical or traditional liberalisms dominated until the late nineteenth century and modern liberalism had dominated since that time

Question 8

What are the 5 main beliefs of liberalism?

Answer 8

Freedom and the individual
Human nature
The role of the state
Society
The economy

Question 9

The 5 main beliefs or liberalism: freedom and the individual

Answer 9

Freedom is central to all liberals as it benefits the individual however there is debate among liberals about how to define freedom

Question 10

The 5 main beliefs or liberalism: human nature

Answer 10

Liberals have an optimistic view of human nature as rational and reasonable however classic liberals focus on humanities natural qualities and the ability of the Indian to satisfy their desires whereas modern liberals focus on what the individual can become given the right conditions, like a good education

Question 11

The 5 main beliefs or liberalism: the role of the state

Answer 11

Classical liberals see a minimal role of the state as it has the potential to restrict individual liberties. Modern liberals favour a more interventionist role for the state in order to ensure that everyone has the same life chances

Question 12

The 5 main beliefs or liberalism: society

Answer 12

Debates emerge in liberalism over how to protect a diverse and tolerant society and over the nature of the relationship between society freedom and the individual

Question 13

State

Answer 13

A body that is sovereign within a defined territorial area with a legitimate monopoly of the use of force

Question 14

Tolerant society

Answer 14

A society that is willing to accept a wide range of moral values, lifestyles, faiths and beliefs

Question 15

The 5 main beliefs or liberalism: the economy

Answer 15

One of the deepest debates among liberals is the role of the state in the economy. Classical liberals favour free market capitalism to drive economic creativity and prosperity for all whereas modern liberals favour state intervention in the economy to ensure that all can flourish

All liberals believe in the right to own private property seeing it as an extension of individual freedom but they disagree over how far others such as the government through taxation have some claims on that freedom

Question 16

What are the 6 main strands of liberalism?

Answer 16

Radical politically
Radical in gender terms
Egotistical individualism
Negative freedom
Night watchman state
Free market capitalism

Question 17

The 5 main strands of liberalism: radical politically

Answer 17

Government by consent promoted the idea that government should represent and reflect the will of the people rather than be the master. Most early liberals rejected the notion of democracy. When talking about liberty for all in reality they usually meant male owners of property. Furthermore many eighteenth century liberals did not extend the concept of liberty to enslaved people

Question 18

The 5 main strands of liberalism: radical in gender terms

Answer 18

The optimistic view that all humans are rational was developed to include women by Mary Wollstonecraft in the eighteenth century

Question 19

The 5 main strands of liberalism: egotistical individualism

Answer 19

Humans are self seeking rational and independent, although this does involve practising restraint and some levels of cooperation with others. Society is comprised of individuals rather than social groups.

Question 20

The 5 main strands of liberalism: negative freedom

Answer 20

The belief in liberty leads classical liberals to define liberty in terms of absence of restraint leaving the individual free to pursue their own view of the good life; the state can only legitimately intervene to prevent harm to others

Question 21

The 5 main strands of liberalism: night watchman state

Answer 21

The state must only act to protect the peace safety and public good of the people according to John Locke. It only has the right to impose its power on the basis of the harm principle in order to ensure the widest possible freedom.

Any restrictions must be justified.

Question 22

The 5 main strands of liberalism: free market capitalism

Answer 22

Liberty and private property are intimately related. The market economy based on property rights can deliver prosperity for the individual and society provided there is free trade and competition. Unless people are free to make contracts, sell their labour, invest their incomes as they see fit and set up businesses they are not really free.

The state must therefore not interfere with free trade and competition by using subsidies, taxes or promoting monopolies. However the state has a crucial role in ensuring the property is protected from theft and that contracts are enforced by an independent judiciary

Question 23

Egotistical individualism

Answer 23

Humans naturally seek to advance their own happiness and interests. The selfish approach involves self restraint and cooperation as the individual wants to have their rights respected, so in term must respect the rights of others

Question 24

Negative freedom

Answer 24

A concept of liberty or freedom that sees it as meaning an absence of constraint, described by the liberal thinker isaihah Berlin as freedom from rather than freedom to

Question 25

What is the harm principle?

Answer 25

JS Mill argued that the government can only rightfully extended its power over the individual to prevent actions of beliefs that harm others. It cannot extend its power over the individual in relation to self regarding actions to protect the individuals own good. For example it is right to stop person A destroying the property of person B but wrong to stop person A destroying their own property.

Question 26

Who is John Locke?

Answer 26

1632-1704

Two treaties of government (1690) attacking the idea that the monarchy has a natural right to rule over others and establishing a liberal justification for a minimal state

Argued that humans are naturally free, equal and independent and are not naturally under the authority of any body or person

He imagined life before the state - the state of nature - to understand why humans created the state

Argued that in a state of nature humans are perfectly free, equal, with no natural rights like to property and bound by the law of nature where no one should harm another in their, life, liberty or possessions

There would be clashes in the state of nature between the interests of free individuals which might limit their opportunities to advance their own happiness. As rational beings individuals would enter into a social contract to form the state so that it could act as an umpire

The state exists to protect and enhance natural rights and only emerges because the people consent to create it

The state reflects the consent of the people and that consent is ongoing. When the state breaks the contract by not protecting and enhancing natural rights the people can withdraw their consent and replace the government

The state is further limited by the principle of the constitutionalism with a clear separation of powers between the executive and legislative to prevent the abuse of power

The state should directly represent the will of property owning individuals

Question 27

Mary Wollstonecraft

Answer 27

1759-97

Committed to extending liberal key thinking particularly in relation to gender equality in society through her key work A vindication of the rights of a woman (1792)

Wollstonecraft extended the optimistic view of human nature to both men and women. She pointed out how the existing state and society promoted the view that women were not rational because women had no formal equality. She compared women to enslaved people.

Women should have formal equality: the right to property, as this right is crucial to freedom and individualism and the rights to education, voting, and allowing them to prosper to ensure that there really was government by consent.

Within marriage women should be granted the right to divorce and protection against domestic violence. The right to properly and employment meant that women would not need to marry out of financial necessity.

Wollstonecraft rejected the societal view that women are defined by their looks

By granting formal equality and giving women access to education the state would increased society’s resources of intellect wisdom and morality to enable social and economic progress

Wollstonecraft was also a key opponent of custom, tradition and practice that formed the basis for the divine right of kings and rule by aristocracy. She argued that these gave no basis for accepting laws or the government and were irrational oppressive and ignorant

In its place Wollstonecraft argued for republicanism, formal equality for all and a constitutional protection of individual rights

Question 28

Authority

Answer 28

The legitimate right to exercise power. For traditional conservatives, authority is placed in the natural elite such as the monarchy as they have the necessary wealth status and power to govern for the benefit of others

Question 29

State of nature

Answer 29

A concept used by political thinkers such as Locke to describe the hypothetical original characteristics of humankind and how people related to each other in a time before organised government

Question 30

Social contract

Answer 30

There is a contract between the individual and the government where the individual agrees with the state to obey its laws and in return the state improves their life. The state is invalid either if there is no consent or it fails to improve the individuals life

Question 31

Constitutionalism

Answer 31

The government must be legally limited in its powers by a constitution in order to protect freedom

Links with the rule of law

Question 32

Fiduciary power

Answer 32

The state holds it power in trust and most act in the interests of and for the benefit of the people otherwise the social contract is invalid

Question 33

Formal equality

Answer 33

Equality under the law as well as the principle that every individual is entitled to equal treatment in society

Question 34

Individualism

Answer 34

The belief in the importance of the individual over the collective within political thought which is central to liberalism and also that the individual exists prior to society

Question 35

Tradition

Answer 35

A form of knowledge passed down through the generations as customs and habits. For their supporters they provide security and stability in an uncertain world

Question 36

Divine right of kings

Answer 36

The idea that a monarch is not subject to earthly authority but instead gains the right to rule directly from god

Question 37

Republicanism

Answer 37

A republic is a political system without a monarch and emphasises citizens taking an active role in public and political life

Question 38

Individuality

Answer 38

Mill believed passionately in the uniqueness of each individual. Freedom was needed to allow them to constantly develop their distinct talents, characteristics and knowledge

Question 39

Hedonism

Answer 39

Happiness is the ultimate good and can be measured as pleasure and an absence of pain. This idea is based on the quantity of pleasure rather than the quality

Question 40

Developmental individualism

Answer 40

Focuses on personal growth and flourishing rather than just self satisfaction emphasising what the individual can become rather than what they are

Question 41

Positive freedom

Answer 41

Isaiah Berlin described this as freedom to rather than freedom from. The individual is free to develop, flourish and pushed their own version of the good life

Question 42

Discrimination

Answer 42

People being treated differently because they belong to a group, such as women, without any real justification based on their differences

Question 43

Positive discrimination

Answer 43

State intervention to give preferential treatment to particular groups in society to tackle historical discrimination and on qualities in society. Affirmative action in the USA being an example

Question 44

Welfare state

Answer 44

The provision of education, health, housing and social security by the state

Question 45

Equality of opportunity

Answer 45

The concept that all individuals have equal life chances, so inequalities are generated by society and must be tackled. If there is not equality of opportunity inequalities which result from differences in ability, creativity and hard work are acceptable.

Question 46

JS Mill

Answer 46

1806-73

Provided the bridge between classical and modern liberalism by developing early liberal thinking on freedom and individualism. He is often described as a transitional liberal, embracing some aspects of classical liberalism but also those of new liberalism. Among his key works are on liberty (1859), utilitarianism (1861) and the subjection of women (1869)

Mill developed the concept of negative freedom arguing that freedom was the absence of restraint as this leaves the individual free to pursue their own version of the good life

Governments should only make laws that restrict actions that harm others not those that harms oneself
> eg drink driving vs drinking in the first place

Mill thought liberty was a natural right and the key to ongoing development and learning of the individual, especially when they experience education
> focus on what they can become rather than what they are now

Liberty is the driver of progress for the individual and allows when to achieve their individuality
> best for them and society because diversity character and culture enables reasonable debate, discussion and argument to drive a society forward

Mill viewed eccentricity positively
> the amount of eccentricity in a society has generally been proportional to the amount of genius, mental vigour and moral courage it contained

In order to foster diversity mill argued government and society should only be limited by the harm principle
> government should not ban or restrict actions, lifestyles or beliefs that cause no harm to others

Mill also placed great emphasis on education and criticised the hedonism of early liberal thinking

The role of the state via education is to enable people to improve their mind and increase higher pleasures

Mill worried that lockes idea of a representative govt would lead to a tyranny of the majority
> he opted instead for representative democracy which would allow an educated electorate to make decisions not about themselves but instead choose representatives to make decisions on their behalf. This would allow representatives to consider all parts of society not just the majority

Question 47

What are lower pleasure? What are higher pleasures?

Answer 47

Lower are those of the body such as eating and drinking

Higher are those which involve the mind like such as doing a crossword or reading a high brow novel

Question 48

Is democracy compatible with liberalism?

Answer 48

Yes:
Democracy enhances individualism where individuals can use the vote to rationally shape the world
Democracy creates government by consent (crucial principle of liberalism)
Democracy restricts the concentration of power by acting as a limit on the state

No:
Democracy may lead to the tyranny of the majority especially where people are not educated
> universal suffrage (getting the vote) should go hand in hand with universal education
Classical liberals wished to restrict the franchise to those with property and JS mill suggested giving more votes to the educated like uni grads
Representative democracy, rather than representative government or direct democracy, dilutes the majority rule as the elected representatives make the decisions

Question 49

What are modern (new or progressive) liberals?

Answer 49

Those that question what is truly meant by liberty. This question was made particularly powerful by the rise of the modern advanced societies and economies, where poverty appeared to restrict the includes ability to develop grow and pursue their own version of a good life

Question 50

Developmental individualism

Answer 50

Focuses on personal growth and flourishing rather than just self satisfaction, emphasising what the individual can become rather than what they are

Question 51

What is positive freedom?

Answer 51

Isaiah Berlin defined it as freedom to rather than freedom from. The individual is free to developed and flourish to pursue their own version of the good life

Question 52

What are some of the key aspects of positive freedom?

Answer 52

Individualism was about the freedom not to allow self seeking individuals to achieve their own pleasures but allowing the individual to flourish and grow both morally and intellectually to acheive their own individuality

TH Green built on this to argue that modern, capitalist societies, Poverty and inequality should be tackled to maintain the conditions without which a free exercise of human faculties is impossible

As a result liberty needs to be redefined so it was no longer seen as absence of restraint but as positive freedom which would enable individuals so that they were free to achieve their individuality

This led to a revision of the role of the state from the idea that it was a potential restriction on freedom to the idea that the state could promote freedom by protecting people from social injustice

Question 53

What is an enabling state?

Answer 53

The concept of positive freedom sees modern liberals refine the role of the state so that it is justified to intervene to protect freedom and individualism
> involves an extension of the role of the state

The provision of a welfare state could be justified on the grounds that it provides equality of opportunity so that all are free to flourish and develop
> funded by taxation and increased public spending

Based on the work of John Maynard Keynes it was argued that the state needed to intervene in the economy to bring about full employment and economic growth necessary for all to be free and pursue their idea of the good life

Question 54

What is social liberalism?

Answer 54

Modern liberalism revises classical liberalisms position on toleration which aims to safeguard it by granting formal equality to all

Modern liberals go further arguing that society has discriminated against minorities
> they promote greater tolerance and equality of opportunity which is consistent with their view of positive freedom and the enabling state

There is a key role for state intention to discriminate in favour of groups who have suffered historical discrimination to ensure that there really is a level playing field for all

Modern examples include the support for same sex marriage and the use of positive discrimination to promote real equality for women and minority ethnic groups

Question 55

TH Green

Answer 55

1836-62

English key thinker and Oxford academic as well as a member of the liberal party
He was one of the major influences upon new or progressive liberalism and approached the notion of freedom in a far more communal rather than a highly individualistic manner

Central to greens ideas is common good which constraints the individual rights so beloved of traditional liberals
> this gives the state not just negative duties to refrain from interfering with freedoms and opportunities of citizens but also positive duties to provide resources and opportunities for individuals self realisation

Freedom therefore should not be understood in a purely negative sense as freedom from. It should also be understood in a positive sense - the freedom of the individual to rise above the narrow concerns of self interest to contribute to common good of society by making the very best of their own unique talents and ability (freedom to)

Postive freedom can only be achieved by removing hereditary privileges in society and tackling poverty.
> TH Green was active in educational reform serving as an assistant commissioner on the Taunton commission on secondary education arguing for significant reforms to equalise opportunities for higher education

Green argued that the state has to take a more positive role by freeing the poor from ignorance, disease, poor quality housing and exploitation in the workplace

Question 56

Betty Friedan

Answer 56

1921-06

American liberal feminist thinker who approached modern liberalism in relation to true gender equality. Like other modern liberalism thinkers she argued that basic foundational equality, such as the right to vote had not solved the problem of power and wealth imbalance between the sexes
> for genuine equality the state needed to intervene further and attitudes towards gender in a liberal democracy needed to change

In the feminine mystique (1963) freidan argued that women’s traditional roles of being a wife and mother made women feel miserable and empty, nicknaming it the problem that has no name
> the idea that a woman is who is a mother and wife has no time for a career massively limits her development and potential. Freidan argued that women like men should be able to maximise the choices available to them

Women could be liberated by working productively outside the home and being allowed to have a full time career
> she believed that marriage motherhood and a career could be balances but would require society to shift their attitudes and more practical help by the state in terms of childcare

In her book the second stage (1981) Friedan argued that there needed to be changes to public an values as well as social institutions and leadership styles to allow all people to achieve personal fulfilment

Friedman supported an activist women’s movement to bring this about
> she was a founder member of the national organisation for women set up in 1966

This change would include the state not just grabbing formal equality but also actively intervening to tackle gender inequality and ensure real equality of opportunity. This might include granting state benefits to since, divorced or widowed mothers so they had equal opportunities to compete for jobs
> Friedan was also a strong supporter of women’s access to birth control and of abortion rights

Question 57

John Rawls

Answer 57

1921-02

Developed the idea of an enabling state based on the principle of justice as fairness and promoting a genuine equality of opportunity

Rawls reaffirmed the liberal idea of foundational equality, arguing that everyone should have equal rights and basic liberties. He termed this the greatest equal liberty principle arguing that each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all
> this was his overriding principle ensuring that basic liberties cannot be infringed on

Rawls then developed the idea of the original position a thoight experiment where people construct the society they would like to live in. In this they would be under the veil of ignorance and have no idea of what sort of person they would be in the new society
> Rational individuals would choose a more socially and economically equal society, as avoiding poverty is a greater motivation than the chance of wealth
> therefore an enabling state with some wealth redistribution via taxation is consistent with the wider liberal goals of freedom and equality of opportunity

This leads to the differences principle. Inequalities of wealth are legitimate as they incentivise people to work harder but only as long as they raise the income and wealth of the least well off. This meant that social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged

The final principle is Rawls view of justice as fairness is the equality of opportunity principle. Here he argued that inequalities should only exist if ‘attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity’
> this meant that in Rawls state there could be scope for positive discrimination in university admissions in favour of the underrepresented or held back

Question 58

Foundational equality

Answer 58

All humans are born morally equal and so are deserving of equal natural rights which are enshrined in law as legal and political rights

Question 59

Differences principle

Answer 59

Economic inequality is permissible is there is equality of opportunity and the inequalities in society are only justifiable if they are to the greatest benefit of the least well off

Question 60

Liberal key thinkers in context

Answer 60

John Locke
Locke was writing at a time when most of Europe was ruled by absolutist monarchies who rejected any notion of a mutually beneficial contract between ruler and ruled. The Glorious Revolution, which peacefully removed James ll from the English throne in favour of William and Mary, had just occurred (1688) when Two Treatises was published. This event embodied some of his key principles, including the belief in removing regimes that imperilled natural rights.
Although broadly in favour of religious toleration, itself a radical idea in a time when most countries had a state church, in his A Letter Concerning Toleration, he excluded Roman Catholics. This reflects the view of that time that Catholicism was closely associated with royal absolutism and anti-liberal forces, as seen, for example, in France under Louis XIV, who believed in ‘L’état c’est moi’ - in other words, the monarch is the state.

Mary Wollstonecraft
In the 1790s, when Wollstonecraft was writing, women lacked the most basic political rights, such as the right to vote, irrespective of their wealth or social class. Married women also had little by way of property rights. In addition, the French Revolution had just occurred, an event she supported.

John Stuart Mill
Mill was writing at the time Britain was beginning its journey towards a democratic state with the passage of the Second Reform Act (1867). This led him to be concerned about the implications for the politics of democracy if the newly enfranchised were not educated, and about the possibility of the ‘tyranny of the majority’.
Extension of the franchise also led him to argue for the inclusion of women in an expanded electorate.

Thomas Hill Green
By the second half of the nineteenth century, the Industrial Revolution had caused profound social and economic changes in Britain. Green was shocked at how largely unregulated, free-market capitalism and the small state beloved of classical liberals had failed to solve the problem of poverty. Self-help and basic foundational equality had not proved effective in creating a society where true equality of opportunity existed for individuals.

John Rawls
Rawls was writing in Cold War America, where the American Dream remained out of reach for many. Like Green, he wanted a capitalist society where the poorest were enabled and given true equality of opportunity by a more active and enlarged state. His arguments could also be seen as a response both to Soviet-style socialism and to New Right and neo-liberal views including those of his fellow Harvard academic Robert Nozick.

Betty Friedan
Despite the achievement of basic equality in terms of the vote, property ownership and access to education, at the time Friedan was writing in the 1960s many American women, especially housewives, felt unfulfilled. It was still largely accepted that married women should embrace motherhood and a primarily domestic role on becoming a wife. The 1960s was also an age of great social upheaval and protest across much of the western world - seen, for example, in the civil rights and peace movements.

Question 61

What is neo liberalism

Answer 61

The second half of the twentieth century to the present

Essentially a reaction to the modern and progressive liberal thinkers like Rawls and the growth of state intervention and control

It is primarily concerned with economic rather than social issues

The most prominent neo-liberal key thinker FA Hayek author of the road to serfdom (1944) sought to return liberalism to its classical roots.

Neoliberalism has been most closely associated with conservatives like thatcher and Reagan

Neoliberalism also aims to roll back the welfare state and Keynesian economic management to return to a free market and minimal state

Question 62

What are the key ideas of neo liberalism

Answer 62

Aimed to reapply the economic ideas of free market capitalism and to campaign for a night watchman state
Private property and negative freedom are central to freedom and individualism
> Hayek argued without private ownership of the press there can be no freedom of press
The welfare state was the betrayal of individualism replacing it with the collectivism favoured by socialism. This involves the state placing unjustifiable restrictions on individual liberty such as high levels of taxation. They also believe it creates a culture of dependency where people don’t help themselves
Free trade and markets as well as globalisation are the best drivers of economic and social progress

Question 63

What do liberals think of freedom and the individual?

Answer 63

Individualism is key - the individual rather than classes or races is they key basis for thinking about human nature, state, society and the economy
On one hand the individual is unique with their own talents and abilities while on the other hand everyone is morally equal on the basis that they are all individuals
Locke argues that all individuals have a natural right to life, liberty and property as each individual is unique and equal this places freedom as a core liberal value. Humans flourish and progress when they are given the widest possible freedom to make rational decisions, own property and establish their own beliefs lifestyles and values

> JS Mill stated over himself over his own body and mind the individual is sovereign

Egotistical individualism is associated with classical liberals who see the individual as self seeking self reliant and independent and view society as nothing more than a collection of individuals

Modern liberals have focused on developmental individualism by building on the ideas of JS mill
> TH Green agreed that individuals are free whne they rise above narrow self interests to participate in a shared way of life and contribute to the common good by improving themselves

Question 64

What do liberals think of human nature?

Answer 64

They have an optimistic view that emerged from the enlightenment and opposed the religious view that humankind is imperfect and flawed found in the concept of original sin

Locke argued that humans are naturally free equal and independent and are not naturally under the authority of other people meaning there is no need for a state to protect people from themselves
> based on their possession of reason

Humans are rational and tolerant and able to understand the views of others and respect their life liberty and possessions
> disputes can be settled through ration discussion and challenges can be overcome with reason

The ability of the individual to pursue their own rational self interests produces indivisible happiness and social progress

Wollestonecraft applied liberal views about human nature and potential to women - a point also taken by mill

Over time liberal key thinkers began to view this approach as being too optimistic and simplistic.
> it was felt that the egotistical nature of human nature led to inequality so the state needs to promote equality of opportunity
> green and Friedan agree

Friedan saw that human nature, left unchecked by the state had produced gender inequality stopping women from achieving individual happiness

Green argued that human nature was not just self interested but rather had a societal dimension as individuals can only grow and flourish in a society where everyone can

Rawls argued that human nature had the capacity for toleration and mutual respect alongside the desire to improve the living standards of the poorest and thereby reduce wealth inequality

Question 65

Collectivism

Answer 65

The idea that the collective rather than the individual is the main economic, social and political unit

Question 66

Toleration

Answer 66

The virtue of not using one’s power to interfere with another’s opinion or action over something morally important and where you morally disapprove of that opinion or action

Question 67

Meritocracy

Answer 67

Social position and economic reward are based on talent and hard work. Where there is equality of opportunity there is an incentive to work hard and realise your talent ensuring everyone gets what they deserve and that society is led by the most talented

Question 68

What did liberals think of the role of the state?

Answer 68

Individualism and capitalism are key but are best supported by the right kind of state

The state is a human construction built to ensure that the natural rights of laws and of natural society are safeguarded so that individuals can flourish
> where there is no law, there is no freedom - Locke

Based on the social contract theory the individual consents to the state while the state protects natural rights allowing the individual to flourish. It is only rational for the individual to consent to the state while it protects those rights better than in the state of nature. While the state fails to do so it is rational for the in dial to withdraw consent and replace the government

Government by consent is government from below - through free fair and regular elections this consent can be given voluntarily by the people

Locke argues that the state must be limited to stop the emergence of a tyrannical government which can be done by a constitution and fragmented government

Modern liberals have supported universal suffrage while being concerned about the tyranny of the majority so place emphasis on a constitution to limit the power of government
> mill developed lockes ideas arguing that government must only intervene when it is necessary to protect the liberties and freedoms of the individual and should tolerate all actions and ideas as long as they don’t violate the harm principle

The state should be a meritocracy to promote individualism allowing individuals to rise to the top as a result of their hard work and talents rather than through the hereditary principle and the artificial privilege of aristocracy

As all are born morally equal all should receive equal opportunities to flourish and achieve happiness and success or failure is down to the individual solely

Modem liberals are more positive about the state’s ability to improve people’s lives and see an expanded role of the state in helping people to help themselves.

Green argued that the removal of poverty - via education, public housing
full potential.

The role of the state was taken further by Rawls to include increased taxation and public spending to ensure that there was social justice and equality of opportunity for all.

The power of the government must not be arbitrary or concentrated in the hands of one person. Liberalism has promoted limited government as the ideal structure for the state

Question 69

The features of a limited government

Answer 69

Constitutionalism is a key feature of limited government, where the written constitution formalizes the contract between the government and the people. It clearly outlines the rules and procedures that the government must adhere to and protects the natural rights of citizens. This ensures that governmental power is exercised within defined limits, promoting accountability and safeguarding individual freedoms.

Fragmented government further limits the concentration of power by dispersing it across various institutions. This is achieved through the separation of powers among the executive, legislature, and judiciary. Additionally, bicameralism, with two legislative houses, ensures a more balanced distribution of authority. A system of checks and balances prevents any one branch from becoming too powerful. Fragmentation is also achieved through federalism, where power is divided between central and regional governments, each possessing distinct areas of jurisdiction.

Formal equality guarantees that all individuals are entitled to the same legal rights, ensuring that everyone is equal before the law. This includes political rights, such as the right to vote, and broader legal protections outlined in a Bill of Rights. These rights safeguard citizens from arbitrary decisions by elected governments, ensuring fair treatment and justice for all.

The rule of law is fundamental to protecting natural rights and establishing a framework of rules that apply to everyone equally. This principle holds regardless of whether individuals are ordinary citizens or members of the government. It ensures that no one is above the law and promotes liberty by protecting individuals from discrimination based on gender, race, religion, or class.

Question 70

What do liberals think of Society

Answer 70

The optimistic view of human nature underpins the liberal view of society

Locke argued that in the state of nature there would be a natural society as there are natural rights such as life, liberty and possessions and natural law which states that no one should harm another’s natural rights

Natural society is built on the principle of individualism. As natural society is one of peace the state should behave as a neutral umpire, safeguarding natural law the natural rights found in natural society

Wollstonecraft was critical of society for its failure to recognise the rights of women

Mill argued that the main aim of society is to provoke individualism

Society should be tolerant and diverse, respecting the individuals rights to hold their own beliefs and values as long as they do not restrict the rights of others

For Locke in a letter concerning toleration (1689) this involved religious toleration as religion was a private matter and should be left to the individual

Mill took this further seeing toleration and diversity as key ingredients of a vibrant and progressive society
> competition sharpens and refines good ideas

Liberals have championed the rights of minority groups that have been discriminated against by society based on gender, sexual orientation, race or religion

Friedan argued that the state had to be more proactive with positive discrimination to ensure there was real equality of opportunity for women in the present

Question 71

What do liberals think of the economy

Answer 71

Liberalisms central belief in the right to property established by Locke underpins its approach to the economy

The free market based on private property incentivises the decision to make rational decisions about contracts, buying and selling labour, how to save invest and spend and raising capital and starting businesses
> this is the embodiment of freedom so liberals support this notion (capitalism)

The government Should be limited to ensure that property is secure and contacts are honoured to allow for free trade and competition - a free market

The invisible hand of the market is automatic guiding individuals to make rational choices
> where products are scarce people will pay more and investment is made to increase production - where products are abundant people will pay less and investment is moved elsewhere

This optimistic view sees the market guiding individuals to economic success creating wealth for all

Modern liberals like green saw free market capitalism as creating social and economic obstacles to people achieving their full potential
> this led modern liberals to support the Keynesian theory

Feminist liberals have argued that women should be given full and equal access to employment opportunities to enable them to contribute fully to a free market economy.
> later writers such as Friedan argued for more state involvement to bring this about including anti discrimination measures