Political Ideologies Flashcards
What is enlightenment?
An intellectual movement that opposed the medieval politics and philosophy of faith superstition and religion
What is absolute monarchy?
When the monarch exercises unlimited power over the people as gods representative on earth. The concept of the divine right of kings embodies this notion of royal absolutism
What are the origins of liberalism?
The European enlightenment of the 17th and 18th century
What did early liberalists argue?
Argued that humans were born free and morally equal and no one naturally has a right to rule over others. All laws and government must be justified and not accepted blindly or based purely on inherited tradition or custom.
This was a direct attack on the form of government at the time: absolute monarchy
What belief did the origins of liberalism promote?
A belief in reason, rather than faith and advocated the importance of the individual and freedom
What was early liberalism like?
Radical and potentially revolutionary with its idea central to the American Declaration of Independence in 1776
What are some different variations of liberalism and when did they develop?
Classical or traditional liberalisms dominated until the late nineteenth century and modern liberalism had dominated since that time
What are the 5 main beliefs of liberalism?
Freedom and the individual
Human nature
The role of the state
Society
The economy
The 5 main beliefs of liberalism: freedom and the individual
Freedom is central to all liberals as it benefits the individual however there is debate among liberals about how to define freedom
The 5 main beliefs or liberalism: human nature
Liberals have an optimistic view of human nature as rational and reasonable however classic liberals focus on humanities natural qualities and the ability of the Indian to satisfy their desires whereas modern liberals focus on what the individual can become given the right conditions, like a good education
The 5 main beliefs or liberalism: the role of the state
Classical liberals see a minimal role of the state as it has the potential to restrict individual liberties. Modern liberals favour a more interventionist role for the state in order to ensure that everyone has the same life chances
The 5 main beliefs or liberalism: society
Debates emerge in liberalism over how to protect a diverse and tolerant society and over the nature of the relationship between society freedom and the individual
State
A body that is sovereign within a defined territorial area with a legitimate monopoly of the use of force
Tolerant society
A society that is willing to accept a wide range of moral values, lifestyles, faiths and beliefs
The 5 main beliefs or liberalism: the economy
One of the deepest debates among liberals is the role of the state in the economy. Classical liberals favour free market capitalism to drive economic creativity and prosperity for all whereas modern liberals favour state intervention in the economy to ensure that all can flourish
All liberals believe in the right to own private property seeing it as an extension of individual freedom but they disagree over how far others such as the government through taxation have some claims on that freedom
What are the 6 main strands of liberalism?
Radical politically
Radical in gender terms
Egotistical individualism
Negative freedom
Night watchman state
Free market capitalism
The 5 main strands of liberalism: radical politically
Government by consent promoted the idea that government should represent and reflect the will of the people rather than be the master. Most early liberals rejected the notion of democracy. When talking about liberty for all in reality they usually meant male owners of property. Furthermore many eighteenth century liberals did not extend the concept of liberty to enslaved people
The 5 main strands of liberalism: radical in gender terms
The optimistic view that all humans are rational was developed to include women by Mary Wollstonecraft in the eighteenth century
The 5 main strands of liberalism: egotistical individualism
Humans are self seeking rational and independent, although this does involve practising restraint and some levels of cooperation with others. Society is comprised of individuals rather than social groups.
The 5 main strands of liberalism: negative freedom
The belief in liberty leads classical liberals to define liberty in terms of absence of restraint leaving the individual free to pursue their own view of the good life; the state can only legitimately intervene to prevent harm to others
The 5 main strands of liberalism: night watchman state
The state must only act to protect the peace safety and public good of the people according to John Locke. It only has the right to impose its power on the basis of the harm principle in order to ensure the widest possible freedom.
Any restrictions must be justified.
The 5 main strands of liberalism: free market capitalism
Liberty and private property are intimately related. The market economy based on property rights can deliver prosperity for the individual and society provided there is free trade and competition. Unless people are free to make contracts, sell their labour, invest their incomes as they see fit and set up businesses they are not really free.
The state must therefore not interfere with free trade and competition by using subsidies, taxes or promoting monopolies. However the state has a crucial role in ensuring the property is protected from theft and that contracts are enforced by an independent judiciary
Egotistical individualism
Humans naturally seek to advance their own happiness and interests. The selfish approach involves self restraint and cooperation as the individual wants to have their rights respected, so in term must respect the rights of others
Negative freedom
A concept of liberty or freedom that sees it as meaning an absence of constraint, described by the liberal thinker isaihah Berlin as freedom from rather than freedom to
What is the harm principle?
JS Mill argued that the government can only rightfully extended its power over the individual to prevent actions of beliefs that harm others. It cannot extend its power over the individual in relation to self regarding actions to protect the individuals own good. For example it is right to stop person A destroying the property of person B but wrong to stop person A destroying their own property.
Who is John Locke?
1632-1704
Two treaties of government (1690) attacking the idea that the monarchy has a natural right to rule over others and establishing a liberal justification for a minimal state
Argued that humans are naturally free, equal and independent and are not naturally under the authority of any body or person
He imagined life before the state - the state of nature - to understand why humans created the state
Argued that in a state of nature humans are perfectly free, equal, with no natural rights like to property and bound by the law of nature where no one should harm another in their, life, liberty or possessions
There would be clashes in the state of nature between the interests of free individuals which might limit their opportunities to advance their own happiness. As rational beings individuals would enter into a social contract to form the state so that it could act as an umpire
The state exists to protect and enhance natural rights and only emerges because the people consent to create it
The state reflects the consent of the people and that consent is ongoing. When the state breaks the contract by not protecting and enhancing natural rights the people can withdraw their consent and replace the government
The state is further limited by the principle of the constitutionalism with a clear separation of powers between the executive and legislative to prevent the abuse of power
The state should directly represent the will of property owning individuals
Mary Wollstonecraft
1759-97
Committed to extending liberal key thinking particularly in relation to gender equality in society through her key work A vindication of the rights of a woman (1792)
Wollstonecraft extended the optimistic view of human nature to both men and women. She pointed out how the existing state and society promoted the view that women were not rational because women had no formal equality. She compared women to enslaved people.
Women should have formal equality: the right to property, as this right is crucial to freedom and individualism and the rights to education, voting, and allowing them to prosper to ensure that there really was government by consent.
Within marriage women should be granted the right to divorce and protection against domestic violence. The right to properly and employment meant that women would not need to marry out of financial necessity.
Wollstonecraft rejected the societal view that women are defined by their looks
By granting formal equality and giving women access to education the state would increased society’s resources of intellect wisdom and morality to enable social and economic progress
Wollstonecraft was also a key opponent of custom, tradition and practice that formed the basis for the divine right of kings and rule by aristocracy. She argued that these gave no basis for accepting laws or the government and were irrational oppressive and ignorant
In its place Wollstonecraft argued for republicanism, formal equality for all and a constitutional protection of individual rights
Authority
The legitimate right to exercise power. For traditional conservatives, authority is placed in the natural elite such as the monarchy as they have the necessary wealth status and power to govern for the benefit of others
State of nature
A concept used by political thinkers such as Locke to describe the hypothetical original characteristics of humankind and how people related to each other in a time before organised government
Social contract
There is a contract between the individual and the government where the individual agrees with the state to obey its laws and in return the state improves their life. The state is invalid either if there is no consent or it fails to improve the individuals life
Constitutionalism
The government must be legally limited in its powers by a constitution in order to protect freedom
Links with the rule of law
Fiduciary power
The state holds it power in trust and most act in the interests of and for the benefit of the people otherwise the social contract is invalid
Formal equality
Equality under the law as well as the principle that every individual is entitled to equal treatment in society
Individualism
The belief in the importance of the individual over the collective within political thought which is central to liberalism and also that the individual exists prior to society
Tradition
A form of knowledge passed down through the generations as customs and habits. For their supporters they provide security and stability in an uncertain world
Divine right of kings
The idea that a monarch is not subject to earthly authority but instead gains the right to rule directly from god
Republicanism
A republic is a political system without a monarch and emphasises citizens taking an active role in public and political life
Individuality
Mill believed passionately in the uniqueness of each individual. Freedom was needed to allow them to constantly develop their distinct talents, characteristics and knowledge
Hedonism
Happiness is the ultimate good and can be measured as pleasure and an absence of pain. This idea is based on the quantity of pleasure rather than the quality
Developmental individualism
Focuses on personal growth and flourishing rather than just self satisfaction emphasising what the individual can become rather than what they are
Positive freedom
Isaiah Berlin described this as freedom to rather than freedom from. The individual is free to develop, flourish and pushed their own version of the good life
Discrimination
People being treated differently because they belong to a group, such as women, without any real justification based on their differences
Positive discrimination
State intervention to give preferential treatment to particular groups in society to tackle historical discrimination and on qualities in society. Affirmative action in the USA being an example
Welfare state
The provision of education, health, housing and social security by the state
Equality of opportunity
The concept that all individuals have equal life chances, so inequalities are generated by society and must be tackled. If there is not equality of opportunity inequalities which result from differences in ability, creativity and hard work are acceptable.
JS Mill
1806-73
Provided the bridge between classical and modern liberalism by developing early liberal thinking on freedom and individualism. He is often described as a transitional liberal, embracing some aspects of classical liberalism but also those of new liberalism. Among his key works are on liberty (1859), utilitarianism (1861) and the subjection of women (1869)
Mill developed the concept of negative freedom arguing that freedom was the absence of restraint as this leaves the individual free to pursue their own version of the good life
Governments should only make laws that restrict actions that harm others not those that harms oneself
> eg drink driving vs drinking in the first place
Mill thought liberty was a natural right and the key to ongoing development and learning of the individual, especially when they experience education
> focus on what they can become rather than what they are now
Liberty is the driver of progress for the individual and allows when to achieve their individuality
> best for them and society because diversity character and culture enables reasonable debate, discussion and argument to drive a society forward
Mill viewed eccentricity positively
> the amount of eccentricity in a society has generally been proportional to the amount of genius, mental vigour and moral courage it contained
In order to foster diversity mill argued government and society should only be limited by the harm principle
> government should not ban or restrict actions, lifestyles or beliefs that cause no harm to others
Mill also placed great emphasis on education and criticised the hedonism of early liberal thinking
The role of the state via education is to enable people to improve their mind and increase higher pleasures
Mill worried that lockes idea of a representative govt would lead to a tyranny of the majority
> he opted instead for representative democracy which would allow an educated electorate to make decisions not about themselves but instead choose representatives to make decisions on their behalf. This would allow representatives to consider all parts of society not just the majority
What are lower pleasure? What are higher pleasures?
Lower are those of the body such as eating and drinking
Higher are those which involve the mind like such as doing a crossword or reading a high brow novel
Is democracy compatible with liberalism?
Yes:
Democracy enhances individualism where individuals can use the vote to rationally shape the world
Democracy creates government by consent (crucial principle of liberalism)
Democracy restricts the concentration of power by acting as a limit on the state
No:
Democracy may lead to the tyranny of the majority especially where people are not educated
> universal suffrage (getting the vote) should go hand in hand with universal education
Classical liberals wished to restrict the franchise to those with property and JS mill suggested giving more votes to the educated like uni grads
Representative democracy, rather than representative government or direct democracy, dilutes the majority rule as the elected representatives make the decisions
What are modern (new or progressive) liberals?
Those that question what is truly meant by liberty. This question was made particularly powerful by the rise of the modern advanced societies and economies, where poverty appeared to restrict the includes ability to develop grow and pursue their own version of a good life
Developmental individualism
Focuses on personal growth and flourishing rather than just self satisfaction, emphasising what the individual can become rather than what they are
What is positive freedom?
Isaiah Berlin defined it as freedom to rather than freedom from. The individual is free to developed and flourish to pursue their own version of the good life
What are some of the key aspects of positive freedom?
Individualism was about the freedom not to allow self seeking individuals to achieve their own pleasures but allowing the individual to flourish and grow both morally and intellectually to acheive their own individuality
TH Green built on this to argue that modern, capitalist societies, Poverty and inequality should be tackled to maintain the conditions without which a free exercise of human faculties is impossible
As a result liberty needs to be redefined so it was no longer seen as absence of restraint but as positive freedom which would enable individuals so that they were free to achieve their individuality
This led to a revision of the role of the state from the idea that it was a potential restriction on freedom to the idea that the state could promote freedom by protecting people from social injustice
What is an enabling state?
The concept of positive freedom sees modern liberals refine the role of the state so that it is justified to intervene to protect freedom and individualism
> involves an extension of the role of the state
The provision of a welfare state could be justified on the grounds that it provides equality of opportunity so that all are free to flourish and develop
> funded by taxation and increased public spending
Based on the work of John Maynard Keynes it was argued that the state needed to intervene in the economy to bring about full employment and economic growth necessary for all to be free and pursue their idea of the good life
What is social liberalism?
Modern liberalism revises classical liberalisms position on toleration which aims to safeguard it by granting formal equality to all
Modern liberals go further arguing that society has discriminated against minorities
> they promote greater tolerance and equality of opportunity which is consistent with their view of positive freedom and the enabling state
There is a key role for state intention to discriminate in favour of groups who have suffered historical discrimination to ensure that there really is a level playing field for all
Modern examples include the support for same sex marriage and the use of positive discrimination to promote real equality for women and minority ethnic groups
TH Green
1836-62
English key thinker and Oxford academic as well as a member of the liberal party
He was one of the major influences upon new or progressive liberalism and approached the notion of freedom in a far more communal rather than a highly individualistic manner
Central to greens ideas is common good which constraints the individual rights so beloved of traditional liberals
> this gives the state not just negative duties to refrain from interfering with freedoms and opportunities of citizens but also positive duties to provide resources and opportunities for individuals self realisation
Freedom therefore should not be understood in a purely negative sense as freedom from. It should also be understood in a positive sense - the freedom of the individual to rise above the narrow concerns of self interest to contribute to common good of society by making the very best of their own unique talents and ability (freedom to)
Postive freedom can only be achieved by removing hereditary privileges in society and tackling poverty.
> TH Green was active in educational reform serving as an assistant commissioner on the Taunton commission on secondary education arguing for significant reforms to equalise opportunities for higher education
Green argued that the state has to take a more positive role by freeing the poor from ignorance, disease, poor quality housing and exploitation in the workplace
Betty Friedan
1921-06
American liberal feminist thinker who approached modern liberalism in relation to true gender equality. Like other modern liberalism thinkers she argued that basic foundational equality, such as the right to vote had not solved the problem of power and wealth imbalance between the sexes
> for genuine equality the state needed to intervene further and attitudes towards gender in a liberal democracy needed to change
In the feminine mystique (1963) freidan argued that women’s traditional roles of being a wife and mother made women feel miserable and empty, nicknaming it the problem that has no name
> the idea that a woman is who is a mother and wife has no time for a career massively limits her development and potential. Freidan argued that women like men should be able to maximise the choices available to them
Women could be liberated by working productively outside the home and being allowed to have a full time career
> she believed that marriage motherhood and a career could be balances but would require society to shift their attitudes and more practical help by the state in terms of childcare
In her book the second stage (1981) Friedan argued that there needed to be changes to public an values as well as social institutions and leadership styles to allow all people to achieve personal fulfilment
Friedman supported an activist women’s movement to bring this about
> she was a founder member of the national organisation for women set up in 1966
This change would include the state not just grabbing formal equality but also actively intervening to tackle gender inequality and ensure real equality of opportunity. This might include granting state benefits to since, divorced or widowed mothers so they had equal opportunities to compete for jobs
> Friedan was also a strong supporter of women’s access to birth control and of abortion rights
John Rawls
1921-02
Developed the idea of an enabling state based on the principle of justice as fairness and promoting a genuine equality of opportunity
Rawls reaffirmed the liberal idea of foundational equality, arguing that everyone should have equal rights and basic liberties. He termed this the greatest equal liberty principle arguing that each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all
> this was his overriding principle ensuring that basic liberties cannot be infringed on
Rawls then developed the idea of the original position a thoight experiment where people construct the society they would like to live in. In this they would be under the veil of ignorance and have no idea of what sort of person they would be in the new society
> Rational individuals would choose a more socially and economically equal society, as avoiding poverty is a greater motivation than the chance of wealth
> therefore an enabling state with some wealth redistribution via taxation is consistent with the wider liberal goals of freedom and equality of opportunity
This leads to the differences principle. Inequalities of wealth are legitimate as they incentivise people to work harder but only as long as they raise the income and wealth of the least well off. This meant that social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged
The final principle is Rawls view of justice as fairness is the equality of opportunity principle. Here he argued that inequalities should only exist if ‘attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity’
> this meant that in Rawls state there could be scope for positive discrimination in university admissions in favour of the underrepresented or held back
Foundational equality
All humans are born morally equal and so are deserving of equal natural rights which are enshrined in law as legal and political rights
Differences principle
Economic inequality is permissible is there is equality of opportunity and the inequalities in society are only justifiable if they are to the greatest benefit of the least well off
Liberal key thinkers in context
John Locke
Locke was writing at a time when most of Europe was ruled by absolutist monarchies who rejected any notion of a mutually beneficial contract between ruler and ruled. The Glorious Revolution, which peacefully removed James ll from the English throne in favour of William and Mary, had just occurred (1688) when Two Treatises was published. This event embodied some of his key principles, including the belief in removing regimes that imperilled natural rights.
Although broadly in favour of religious toleration, itself a radical idea in a time when most countries had a state church, in his A Letter Concerning Toleration, he excluded Roman Catholics. This reflects the view of that time that Catholicism was closely associated with royal absolutism and anti-liberal forces, as seen, for example, in France under Louis XIV, who believed in ‘L’état c’est moi’ - in other words, the monarch is the state.
Mary Wollstonecraft
In the 1790s, when Wollstonecraft was writing, women lacked the most basic political rights, such as the right to vote, irrespective of their wealth or social class. Married women also had little by way of property rights. In addition, the French Revolution had just occurred, an event she supported.
John Stuart Mill
Mill was writing at the time Britain was beginning its journey towards a democratic state with the passage of the Second Reform Act (1867). This led him to be concerned about the implications for the politics of democracy if the newly enfranchised were not educated, and about the possibility of the ‘tyranny of the majority’.
Extension of the franchise also led him to argue for the inclusion of women in an expanded electorate.
Thomas Hill Green
By the second half of the nineteenth century, the Industrial Revolution had caused profound social and economic changes in Britain. Green was shocked at how largely unregulated, free-market capitalism and the small state beloved of classical liberals had failed to solve the problem of poverty. Self-help and basic foundational equality had not proved effective in creating a society where true equality of opportunity existed for individuals.
John Rawls
Rawls was writing in Cold War America, where the American Dream remained out of reach for many. Like Green, he wanted a capitalist society where the poorest were enabled and given true equality of opportunity by a more active and enlarged state. His arguments could also be seen as a response both to Soviet-style socialism and to New Right and neo-liberal views including those of his fellow Harvard academic Robert Nozick.
Betty Friedan
Despite the achievement of basic equality in terms of the vote, property ownership and access to education, at the time Friedan was writing in the 1960s many American women, especially housewives, felt unfulfilled. It was still largely accepted that married women should embrace motherhood and a primarily domestic role on becoming a wife. The 1960s was also an age of great social upheaval and protest across much of the western world - seen, for example, in the civil rights and peace movements.
What is neo liberalism
The second half of the twentieth century to the present
Essentially a reaction to the modern and progressive liberal thinkers like Rawls and the growth of state intervention and control
It is primarily concerned with economic rather than social issues
The most prominent neo-liberal key thinker FA Hayek author of the road to serfdom (1944) sought to return liberalism to its classical roots.
Neoliberalism has been most closely associated with conservatives like thatcher and Reagan
Neoliberalism also aims to roll back the welfare state and Keynesian economic management to return to a free market and minimal state
What are the key ideas of neo liberalism
Aimed to reapply the economic ideas of free market capitalism and to campaign for a night watchman state
Private property and negative freedom are central to freedom and individualism
> Hayek argued without private ownership of the press there can be no freedom of press
The welfare state was the betrayal of individualism replacing it with the collectivism favoured by socialism. This involves the state placing unjustifiable restrictions on individual liberty such as high levels of taxation. They also believe it creates a culture of dependency where people don’t help themselves
Free trade and markets as well as globalisation are the best drivers of economic and social progress
What do liberals think of freedom and the individual?
Individualism is key - the individual rather than classes or races is they key basis for thinking about human nature, state, society and the economy
On one hand the individual is unique with their own talents and abilities while on the other hand everyone is morally equal on the basis that they are all individuals
Locke argues that all individuals have a natural right to life, liberty and property as each individual is unique and equal this places freedom as a core liberal value. Humans flourish and progress when they are given the widest possible freedom to make rational decisions, own property and establish their own beliefs lifestyles and values
> JS Mill stated over himself over his own body and mind the individual is sovereign
Egotistical individualism is associated with classical liberals who see the individual as self seeking self reliant and independent and view society as nothing more than a collection of individuals
Modern liberals have focused on developmental individualism by building on the ideas of JS mill
> TH Green agreed that individuals are free whne they rise above narrow self interests to participate in a shared way of life and contribute to the common good by improving themselves
What do liberals think of human nature?
They have an optimistic view that emerged from the enlightenment and opposed the religious view that humankind is imperfect and flawed found in the concept of original sin
Locke argued that humans are naturally free equal and independent and are not naturally under the authority of other people meaning there is no need for a state to protect people from themselves
> based on their possession of reason
Humans are rational and tolerant and able to understand the views of others and respect their life liberty and possessions
> disputes can be settled through ration discussion and challenges can be overcome with reason
The ability of the individual to pursue their own rational self interests produces indivisible happiness and social progress
Wollestonecraft applied liberal views about human nature and potential to women - a point also taken by mill
Over time liberal key thinkers began to view this approach as being too optimistic and simplistic.
> it was felt that the egotistical nature of human nature led to inequality so the state needs to promote equality of opportunity
> green and Friedan agree
Friedan saw that human nature, left unchecked by the state had produced gender inequality stopping women from achieving individual happiness
Green argued that human nature was not just self interested but rather had a societal dimension as individuals can only grow and flourish in a society where everyone can
Rawls argued that human nature had the capacity for toleration and mutual respect alongside the desire to improve the living standards of the poorest and thereby reduce wealth inequality
Collectivism
The idea that the collective rather than the individual is the main economic, social and political unit
Toleration
The virtue of not using one’s power to interfere with another’s opinion or action over something morally important and where you morally disapprove of that opinion or action
Meritocracy
Social position and economic reward are based on talent and hard work. Where there is equality of opportunity there is an incentive to work hard and realise your talent ensuring everyone gets what they deserve and that society is led by the most talented
What did liberals think of the role of the state?
Individualism and capitalism are key but are best supported by the right kind of state
The state is a human construction built to ensure that the natural rights of laws and of natural society are safeguarded so that individuals can flourish
> where there is no law, there is no freedom - Locke
Based on the social contract theory the individual consents to the state while the state protects natural rights allowing the individual to flourish. It is only rational for the individual to consent to the state while it protects those rights better than in the state of nature. While the state fails to do so it is rational for the in dial to withdraw consent and replace the government
Government by consent is government from below - through free fair and regular elections this consent can be given voluntarily by the people
Locke argues that the state must be limited to stop the emergence of a tyrannical government which can be done by a constitution and fragmented government
Modern liberals have supported universal suffrage while being concerned about the tyranny of the majority so place emphasis on a constitution to limit the power of government
> mill developed lockes ideas arguing that government must only intervene when it is necessary to protect the liberties and freedoms of the individual and should tolerate all actions and ideas as long as they don’t violate the harm principle
The state should be a meritocracy to promote individualism allowing individuals to rise to the top as a result of their hard work and talents rather than through the hereditary principle and the artificial privilege of aristocracy
As all are born morally equal all should receive equal opportunities to flourish and achieve happiness and success or failure is down to the individual solely
Modem liberals are more positive about the state’s ability to improve people’s lives and see an expanded role of the state in helping people to help themselves.
Green argued that the removal of poverty - via education, public housing
full potential.
The role of the state was taken further by Rawls to include increased taxation and public spending to ensure that there was social justice and equality of opportunity for all.
The power of the government must not be arbitrary or concentrated in the hands of one person. Liberalism has promoted limited government as the ideal structure for the state
The features of a limited government
Constitutionalism is a key feature of limited government, where the written constitution formalizes the contract between the government and the people. It clearly outlines the rules and procedures that the government must adhere to and protects the natural rights of citizens. This ensures that governmental power is exercised within defined limits, promoting accountability and safeguarding individual freedoms.
Fragmented government further limits the concentration of power by dispersing it across various institutions. This is achieved through the separation of powers among the executive, legislature, and judiciary. Additionally, bicameralism, with two legislative houses, ensures a more balanced distribution of authority. A system of checks and balances prevents any one branch from becoming too powerful. Fragmentation is also achieved through federalism, where power is divided between central and regional governments, each possessing distinct areas of jurisdiction.
Formal equality guarantees that all individuals are entitled to the same legal rights, ensuring that everyone is equal before the law. This includes political rights, such as the right to vote, and broader legal protections outlined in a Bill of Rights. These rights safeguard citizens from arbitrary decisions by elected governments, ensuring fair treatment and justice for all.
The rule of law is fundamental to protecting natural rights and establishing a framework of rules that apply to everyone equally. This principle holds regardless of whether individuals are ordinary citizens or members of the government. It ensures that no one is above the law and promotes liberty by protecting individuals from discrimination based on gender, race, religion, or class.
What do liberals think of Society
The optimistic view of human nature underpins the liberal view of society
Locke argued that in the state of nature there would be a natural society as there are natural rights such as life, liberty and possessions and natural law which states that no one should harm another’s natural rights
Natural society is built on the principle of individualism. As natural society is one of peace the state should behave as a neutral umpire, safeguarding natural law the natural rights found in natural society
Wollstonecraft was critical of society for its failure to recognise the rights of women
Mill argued that the main aim of society is to provoke individualism
Society should be tolerant and diverse, respecting the individuals rights to hold their own beliefs and values as long as they do not restrict the rights of others
For Locke in a letter concerning toleration (1689) this involved religious toleration as religion was a private matter and should be left to the individual
Mill took this further seeing toleration and diversity as key ingredients of a vibrant and progressive society
> competition sharpens and refines good ideas
Liberals have championed the rights of minority groups that have been discriminated against by society based on gender, sexual orientation, race or religion
Friedan argued that the state had to be more proactive with positive discrimination to ensure there was real equality of opportunity for women in the present
What do liberals think of the economy
Liberalisms central belief in the right to property established by Locke underpins its approach to the economy
The free market based on private property incentivises the decision to make rational decisions about contracts, buying and selling labour, how to save invest and spend and raising capital and starting businesses
> this is the embodiment of freedom so liberals support this notion (capitalism)
The government Should be limited to ensure that property is secure and contacts are honoured to allow for free trade and competition - a free market
The invisible hand of the market is automatic guiding individuals to make rational choices
> where products are scarce people will pay more and investment is made to increase production - where products are abundant people will pay less and investment is moved elsewhere
This optimistic view sees the market guiding individuals to economic success creating wealth for all
Modern liberals like green saw free market capitalism as creating social and economic obstacles to people achieving their full potential
> this led modern liberals to support the Keynesian theory
Feminist liberals have argued that women should be given full and equal access to employment opportunities to enable them to contribute fully to a free market economy.
> later writers such as Friedan argued for more state involvement to bring this about including anti discrimination measures
What are some areas of agreement and tension in liberalism: human nature
Agreement:
An optimistic view of human nature and progress
> liberals view individuals as morally equal, independent and rational with a desire to pursue their version of a good life
Individualism needs to be protected and promoted and there should be toleration of different values, beliefs and versions of the good life
Tensions:
Classical liberals and neo liberals see these qualities as innate for individuals and that they develop best when people are left to pursue their own happiness
Modern liberals build on mills view that rationalism needs to be developed and individualism is more of a reflection of what humans can become especially via education than simply what they are
Green saw human nature as having a clear social dimension arguing that freedom is achieved by working towards the common good
> this provides the basis for the state to enable individuals to help themselves via equality of opportunity
Feminist and modern liberals apply the same levels of rationality to both men and women
> early liberals like Locke were less concerned with gender equality
What are some areas of agreement and tension in Liberalism: the state
Agreement:
The states role is to promote, protect and uphold individual freedoms and thus enable individual flourishing of talents and enterprise
All liberals argue that the state should be limited by constitutionalism the fragmentation of power, equality for citizens and the rule of law
Tension:
Classical liberals argued that the state should have a night watchman role, justified by the concept of negative freedom with intervention justified only to prevent actions that are harmful to others
> this will leave the individual free to pursue their own version of the good life
Modern liberals believe in more of an enabling state where there is more intervention to make people free to pursue their own individuality
> in line with the concept of positive freedom
Classical liberals such as Locke favoured a representative government that only favoured the interests of property owning individuals
Modern liberals favoured representative democracy with universal suffrage and strong constitutional limits but are concerned that democracy may lead to a tyranny of the majority
> they view education as crucial to people voting wisely
What are some areas of agreement and tension in Liberalism: society
Agreement:
Society could exist without the state
> in this state of nature natural rights and law would be present reflecting the liberalist view in humankind being an innately social creature
All liberals stress individualism and freedom in society and that society should be attended to allow the individual to flourish and achieve their own self fulfilment
Tension:
Classical liberals argued that natural society existed before the state and was peaceful
> individuals are self seeking and Independent but constrained by their rational nature which leads them to respect the rights of others so their rights are protected in turn
Modern liberals see modern industrial societies based around free market capitalism as restricting the ability of individuals to be free
> this leads to support for social justice where poverty and inequality as well as any discrimination based on identity are tackled by the state to ensure positive freedom
Neo liberals hark back negative freedom arguing that the enabling state has unjustly reduced liberty and created a dependency culture which limits individualism by taking away people’s self reliance
What are some areas of agreement and tension in Liberalism: the economy
Agreement:
Emerging from lockes natural laws all liberals emphasise the right to own property and advocate an economy based on private property as the best route to creating wealth
Property is seen as essential to freedom and protecting the individual from the state
Tensions:
Classical and Neo liberals adopt the view that the states only role is to protect property and enforce contracts and that the market should be left
Free trade without subsidies, taxes or regulations will provide the most efficient outcomes and drive economic creativity and prosperity for all
Modern liberals argue that the state is justified in intervening in the economy using the tools of taxation and public spending in order to be able to manage capitalism so that it delivers employment for all
Modern liberals also argue that employment provides the necessary wealth to reduce poverty so that everyone can be free to choose their own version of a good life
> the means of production should be left in the hands of private companies as a safeguard of personal liberty
What is conservatism?
A political approach that tends to be suspicious of radical change and promotes change only to conserve.
What are the origins of conservatism?
Began as a response to the French Revolution
Focused on the value of custom, tradition and continuity rather than the abstract ideals of liberalism
Did not believe a perfect society based on reason could exist
Promoted the idea of change to conserve
Saw human nature as flawed and limited in its grasp of the world
Emphasised organic society over individualism with society dependent on bonds of trust and affection (local communities and groups like families, churches and schools)
State needed to be strong to provide order peace and stability seen as vital to society and freedom
> hierarchy over equality and democracy
What is change to conserve?
Conservatives opposing radical change as they view society as organic
> long established institutions and practices like the monarchy and parliamentary sovereignty reflect the accumulated wisdom of the past and the tried and tested
What is organic society?
Society is a natural complex body like a tree
> it develops and grows slowly, needs constant nurturing and pruning to ensure its health and should not be uprooted through something radical like revolution
What is hierarchy?
Key principle in conservatism
Human nature and society are naturally divided by wealth, status and power
> there is a natural ruling class with the necessary wealth and power to govern and the masses should obey the elite that govern in their interest
Who is Thomas Hobbes and what ideology did he subscribe to?
Conservative
(1588-1679)
Wrote in response to the English civil war
Human nature
- the most gloomy and cynical
- sees humans as endlessly in pursuit of power in order to satisfy their immediate desires and any potential future desires
- desire for both is selfish and competitive
- humans are roughly equal in strength and ability so must be fearful of others as the weakest has enough strength to kill the strongest
State of nature
- scarce resources meaning humans desire for power is roughly equal and there will be a war of every man against every man
- argued that life in the state of nature will be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short
- the first natural law is that man should seek peace as far as he can and then if not use war
- as humans are rational it is reasonable to believe that people will rise above the state of nature for self preservation
> this is achieved by agreeing a social contract between themselves and their ruler
Power of the sovereign
- the social contract of the people establishes a sovereign
> absolute power to provide order security and stability which will lead to the emergence of society
- key for Hobbes was that sovereign power was placed in one supreme authority which was not limited by legal rights of other bodies
- preferred monarchy as a form of government or a system where one person has absolute authority
- the social contract is made between the people, not the people and sovereign
> when the contract is complete the people only have the rights that the sovereign chooses to give to them
What are the three key themes of conservatism?
Government, the free market and the individual
What are the four key areas that conservatives agree and disagree on?
Human nature, the state, society and the economy
Where is there tensions in conservatism?
Traditional one nation conservatives and the new right
What does conservatism lack that the other ideologies have?
An end goal - it has no view of a type of society or economy that it is working towards and so lacks any concrete idea of progress or development
Is conservatism pragmatic and flexible?
Yes - this can mean it is seen as having no underlying principles
> this has allowed it to develop and adapt to preserve inequality and priveledge which can be seen in the gradual acceptance of democracy to preserve hierarchy
What kind of change do conservatives support?
Gradual change and the traditions that leave them open to preserving inequality and privilege
> support the traditions of monarchy but not movements like trade unions
> this has been challenged with traditional and new right individuals putting forward their views
Main strands of conservatism: traditional conservatism (French Revolution to the late nineteenth century)
Hierarchy - human nature and society are naturally divided by wealth, status and power
Paternalism - the ruling elite have a sense of obligation and duty to the many: government should act like a father to its children
> governing in the best interests remembering that they may have a better view of those than the people, the people should show deference to their leaders
Order - the government provides clear rules discipline and guidance to ensure that society is ordered, peaceful and stable
> this creates a responsible citizen and ensures that freedom benefits everyone and is not abused
Freedom - traditional conservatism is about freedom and the limits to freedom placed by institutions that allow everyone to enjoy it responsibly
> allows people to understand that their good behaviour will be reciprocated by others, partly due to fear of breaking the law
Social attitudes - traditional conservatism upholds that there are proven moral values that ensure stability and certainty
> these include traditional marriage and conventional family life with gender roles
> individual freedoms are limited to protect these attitudes and values
Little platoons - society is a collection of little platoons, not individuals
> each community provides the sense of security order and stability that an individual desires
Change to conserve - change and reform must be gradual and respect the accumulated wisdom of tradition
Empiricism - focusing on what works (traditions and customs) rather than what theory and abstract principles says will work
What is empiricism?
Politics should be based on what works most effectively not on abstract principles or ideas
> emerged from the politics of imperfection as humans are limited in what they are able to know and understand about the world
Who is Edmund Burke and what ideology did he subscribe to?
Conservatism - often described as the father of it
1729-97
Was a Whig MP and his thinking was based on this: the Whigs had an opposition to arbitrary absolute power
American and French Revolution
- supporter of American as if aimed to protect the ancient rights and privileges of the people but opposed French as it was based on abstract theory and idealism borne out of frustration with the French power structure and the resultant poverty of the majority
Human nature
- had a broadly sceptical view of human nature and saw the individual as foolish but the species as wise
- he argued that humans could not rely on the individual reason (rationalism) but could rely on tradition and custom
> the general bank and capital of nations and ages
- Burke also opposed the idea of a social contract suggested by Hobbes
- argued that the only contract that existed was between ‘the dead, the living and the yet to be born’
> the present must protect and nurture past tradition to pass it on to future generations
- the French Revolution was a destruction of that contract as it destroyed existing institutions and so removed the inheritance of those yet to be born
Society
- highly critical of individualism defending the importance of ‘we’
> little platoons are places where traditions and customs are formed which are the bank of knowledge developed from trial and error in dealing with political problems
- in this sense society is organic as it develops naturally and traditions and customs change slowly based on practical knowledge and evidence, not theory
> Burke also attacked the French revolutions emphasis on equality, arguing that the hierarchy was natural in organic societies
Main strands of conservatism: one nation conservatism (late nineteenth century to the late twentieth century)
Threat of disorder - emerged from the threat to the order of state and society from socialism, class conflict and the effects of free market capitalism that emerged from classical liberalism.
> one nation updates traditional conservatisms ideas to deal with this threat
One nation - should emphasis and focus on the bonds of affection and trust that hold society together as part of a nation. All classes and troupe in society are part of one nation because society is organic where damage and distress to one element will damage the whole.
> ‘the place is not safe when the cottage is not happy’ - Benjamin Disraeli
Change to conserve - Disraeli was concerned with the effects on society of an unchecked free market. He accepted the rise of big cities and the spirit of commercialism as inevitable so did not want reactionary policies to head back to a previous time and instead wanted to tackle the worst consequences of the market to conserve society
Paternalism - there is a clear bond between groups so it is clear that the wealthy have a responsibility to the less well off. This would involve the state intervening in the free merry economy and society in order to ensure social stability
Who is Michael Oakeshott and what ideology does he subscribe to?
Conservative
1901-90
Updated the conservative approach to human nature and the conservative view on gradual reform
- saw humans as fragile and fallible unable to understand the world as it was too complex for them to grasp
- highly critical of the politics of rationalism which is the idea of remaking society based on the abstract ideas and principles of political philosophers
- abstract ideas will always fail because they are not based on concrete experience
> worse, the remaking of society can do untold damage to traditions which are based on hundreds of years of practical experience - humans and societies prefer instead ‘the familiar to the unknown… the actual to the possible’ so a pragmatic and empirical view works best
- rejected politics of faith with its faith in the go enemy to improve the condition of mankind or even to perfect mankind. In its place he proposed the politics of skepticism as the governments attempts to perfect mankind are dangerous for human liberty and dignity
- the idea of a perfection is absorbed and there should be skepticism about the ability of government - staffed by individuals like us - to use their power justly and efficiently
> governments role should instead be limited to preserving public order - conservatism is a disposition rather than an ideology and although conservatives are disposed towards limited government it should not be the basis on some abstract ideal
- argued that ‘ in political activity, men sail a boundless and bottomless sea; there is neither harbour for shelter nor flood for anchorage , neither starting place, nor appointed destination. The enterprise is to keep afloat on an even keel’
The main strands of conservatism: the new right (mid 20th century to present)
Origins
- ideas of Hobbes and Burke emerged from reactions to the horrors of the English civil wars and French Revolution, the new right can be traced back to the rise of authoritarian regimes in the twentieth century such as Nazi Germany and stalins Soviet Union
- the new right is also a response to the growth of the state in western democracies and after WW2, the development of the welfare state and increased taxation
Small state
- partly inspired by ‘morality of rational self interest’
- for rational self interest to be the key principle of society, the state needs to be rolled back
> for example the state should be limited to providing the armed forces, a police force and a court system to ensure that property is respected and contracts are enforced
- the new right opposes public spending on welfare as it is both unjust and creates a dependency culture
Free market capitalism
- the new right believes that market forces are the best method for distribution and management of society’s resources
- deep cuts in taxes, privatisation and deregulation and tight restrictions on government spending are needed to return to free market capitalism.
> Everyone should be free to follow all the opportunities they can in the market place, with minimal levels of taxation and regulation in order to create greater prosperity for all
- echoes of this can be found in trickle down economics where cutting taxes for the richest will trickle down to benefit everyone
Society
- divided into neo conservatives who wish to return to a society built on authority, national identity and traditional morality and Neo liberals who advocate for a society built on individual choice
- Neo conservatives are anti permissive and would extend the role of the state to promote traditional family values like marriage and to protect national security and defence
> they fear the impact of immigration on social cohesion and national identity
- for Neo liberals individual choice is not just about economics but also morality
> the state should not intervene in areas of private morality and should be stripped back to the minimum to minimise tax and spending
> Neo liberals are relaxed about immigration as it is natural for a free market to have free movement of people and labour
- although there is tensions in the new right , Neo conservatives and Neo liberals can work together in a complementary fashion
Where are there areas of tension and agreement in the new right?
Neo conservatives believe…
- the state should be strengthened in terms of protecting law and order as well as promoting traditional values and patriotism
- restrict individual liberties to promote law and order and national security (increased police power and longer prison sentences). The state should direct the moral life of society
- increase spending to promote the country abroad and for defence and national security
Neo liberalists believe…
- roll back the frontiers of the state (spending cuts, privatisation and deregulation)
- advance liberty through the reduction of tax and the reduction of the welfare state
> the state has no role in intervening in areas of private morality
- minimise government spending in all areas where possible but accept the need for government funding of defence and justice
Areas of agreement…
- free latter economics creates tensions as inequality may flourish increasing the need for law and order and the protection of private property
> strong but limited state
- the smaller state means those in need will need support and guidance from society in the forms of little platoons to promote the bonds of affection and trust between individuals and communities
- reducing funding in other areas like welfare to concentrate money on law and order, promoting the country and national security
Anti-permissive
A rejection of permissiveness which is the liberal belief that people should make their own moral choices (abortion, marriage and relationships) and the state should impose social order and morality by promoting traditional values and tough law and order policies.
