Political Ideologies Flashcards

Question

What is the harm principle?

Answer 1

JS Mill argued that the government can only rightfully extended its power over the individual to prevent actions of beliefs that harm others. It cannot extend its power over the individual in relation to self regarding actions to protect the individuals own good. For example it is right to stop person A destroying the property of person B but wrong to stop person A destroying their own property.

Answer 2

1632-1704 Two treaties of government (1690) attacking the idea that the monarchy has a natural right to rule over others and establishing a liberal justification for a minimal state Argued that humans are naturally free, equal and independent and are not naturally under the authority of any body or person He imagined life before the state - the state of nature - to understand why humans created the state Argued that in a state of nature humans are perfectly free, equal, with no natural rights like to property and bound by the law of nature where no one should harm another in their, life, liberty or possessions There would be clashes in the state of nature between the interests of free individuals which might limit their opportunities to advance their own happiness. As rational beings individuals would enter into a social contract to form the state so that it could act as an umpire The state exists to protect and enhance natural rights and only emerges because the people consent to create it The state reflects the consent of the people and that consent is ongoing. When the state breaks the contract by not protecting and enhancing natural rights the people can withdraw their consent and replace the government The state is further limited by the principle of the constitutionalism with a clear separation of powers between the executive and legislative to prevent the abuse of power The state should directly represent the will of property owning individuals

Answer 3

1759-97 Committed to extending liberal key thinking particularly in relation to gender equality in society through her key work A vindication of the rights of a woman (1792) Wollstonecraft extended the optimistic view of human nature to both men and women. She pointed out how the existing state and society promoted the view that women were not rational because women had no formal equality. She compared women to enslaved people. Women should have formal equality: the right to property, as this right is crucial to freedom and individualism and the rights to education, voting, and allowing them to prosper to ensure that there really was government by consent. Within marriage women should be granted the right to divorce and protection against domestic violence. The right to properly and employment meant that women would not need to marry out of financial necessity. Wollstonecraft rejected the societal view that women are defined by their looks By granting formal equality and giving women access to education the state would increased society’s resources of intellect wisdom and morality to enable social and economic progress Wollstonecraft was also a key opponent of custom, tradition and practice that formed the basis for the divine right of kings and rule by aristocracy. She argued that these gave no basis for accepting laws or the government and were irrational oppressive and ignorant In its place Wollstonecraft argued for republicanism, formal equality for all and a constitutional protection of individual rights

Answer 4

The legitimate right to exercise power. For traditional conservatives, authority is placed in the natural elite such as the monarchy as they have the necessary wealth status and power to govern for the benefit of others

Answer 5

A concept used by political thinkers such as Locke to describe the hypothetical original characteristics of humankind and how people related to each other in a time before organised government

Answer 6

There is a contract between the individual and the government where the individual agrees with the state to obey its laws and in return the state improves their life. The state is invalid either if there is no consent or it fails to improve the individuals life

Answer 7

The government must be legally limited in its powers by a constitution in order to protect freedom Links with the rule of law

Answer 8

The state holds it power in trust and most act in the interests of and for the benefit of the people otherwise the social contract is invalid

Answer 9

Equality under the law as well as the principle that every individual is entitled to equal treatment in society

Answer 10

The belief in the importance of the individual over the collective within political thought which is central to liberalism and also that the individual exists prior to society

Answer 11

A form of knowledge passed down through the generations as customs and habits. For their supporters they provide security and stability in an uncertain world

Answer 12

The idea that a monarch is not subject to earthly authority but instead gains the right to rule directly from god

Answer 13

A republic is a political system without a monarch and emphasises citizens taking an active role in public and political life

Answer 14

Mill believed passionately in the uniqueness of each individual. Freedom was needed to allow them to constantly develop their distinct talents, characteristics and knowledge

Answer 15

Happiness is the ultimate good and can be measured as pleasure and an absence of pain. This idea is based on the quantity of pleasure rather than the quality

Answer 16

Focuses on personal growth and flourishing rather than just self satisfaction emphasising what the individual can become rather than what they are

Answer 17

Isaiah Berlin described this as freedom to rather than freedom from. The individual is free to develop, flourish and pushed their own version of the good life

Answer 18

People being treated differently because they belong to a group, such as women, without any real justification based on their differences

Answer 19

State intervention to give preferential treatment to particular groups in society to tackle historical discrimination and on qualities in society. Affirmative action in the USA being an example

Answer 20

The provision of education, health, housing and social security by the state

Answer 21

The concept that all individuals have equal life chances, so inequalities are generated by society and must be tackled. If there is not equality of opportunity inequalities which result from differences in ability, creativity and hard work are acceptable.

Answer 22

1806-73 Provided the bridge between classical and modern liberalism by developing early liberal thinking on freedom and individualism. He is often described as a transitional liberal, embracing some aspects of classical liberalism but also those of new liberalism. Among his key works are on liberty (1859), utilitarianism (1861) and the subjection of women (1869) Mill developed the concept of negative freedom arguing that freedom was the absence of restraint as this leaves the individual free to pursue their own version of the good life Governments should only make laws that restrict actions that harm others not those that harms oneself > eg drink driving vs drinking in the first place Mill thought liberty was a natural right and the key to ongoing development and learning of the individual, especially when they experience education > focus on what they can become rather than what they are now Liberty is the driver of progress for the individual and allows when to achieve their individuality > best for them and society because diversity character and culture enables reasonable debate, discussion and argument to drive a society forward Mill viewed eccentricity positively > the amount of eccentricity in a society has generally been proportional to the amount of genius, mental vigour and moral courage it contained In order to foster diversity mill argued government and society should only be limited by the harm principle > government should not ban or restrict actions, lifestyles or beliefs that cause no harm to others Mill also placed great emphasis on education and criticised the hedonism of early liberal thinking The role of the state via education is to enable people to improve their mind and increase higher pleasures Mill worried that lockes idea of a representative govt would lead to a tyranny of the majority > he opted instead for representative democracy which would allow an educated electorate to make decisions not about themselves but instead choose representatives to make decisions on their behalf. This would allow representatives to consider all parts of society not just the majority

Answer 23

Lower are those of the body such as eating and drinking Higher are those which involve the mind like such as doing a crossword or reading a high brow novel

Answer 24

Yes: Democracy enhances individualism where individuals can use the vote to rationally shape the world Democracy creates government by consent (crucial principle of liberalism) Democracy restricts the concentration of power by acting as a limit on the state No: Democracy may lead to the tyranny of the majority especially where people are not educated > universal suffrage (getting the vote) should go hand in hand with universal education Classical liberals wished to restrict the franchise to those with property and JS mill suggested giving more votes to the educated like uni grads Representative democracy, rather than representative government or direct democracy, dilutes the majority rule as the elected representatives make the decisions

Answer 25

Those that question what is truly meant by liberty. This question was made particularly powerful by the rise of the modern advanced societies and economies, where poverty appeared to restrict the includes ability to develop grow and pursue their own version of a good life

Answer 26

Focuses on personal growth and flourishing rather than just self satisfaction, emphasising what the individual can become rather than what they are

Answer 27

Isaiah Berlin defined it as freedom to rather than freedom from. The individual is free to developed and flourish to pursue their own version of the good life

Answer 28

Individualism was about the freedom not to allow self seeking individuals to achieve their own pleasures but allowing the individual to flourish and grow both morally and intellectually to acheive their own individuality TH Green built on this to argue that modern, capitalist societies, Poverty and inequality should be tackled to maintain the conditions without which a free exercise of human faculties is impossible As a result liberty needs to be redefined so it was no longer seen as absence of restraint but as positive freedom which would enable individuals so that they were free to achieve their individuality This led to a revision of the role of the state from the idea that it was a potential restriction on freedom to the idea that the state could promote freedom by protecting people from social injustice

Answer 29

The concept of positive freedom sees modern liberals refine the role of the state so that it is justified to intervene to protect freedom and individualism > involves an extension of the role of the state The provision of a welfare state could be justified on the grounds that it provides equality of opportunity so that all are free to flourish and develop > funded by taxation and increased public spending Based on the work of John Maynard Keynes it was argued that the state needed to intervene in the economy to bring about full employment and economic growth necessary for all to be free and pursue their idea of the good life

Answer 30

Modern liberalism revises classical liberalisms position on toleration which aims to safeguard it by granting formal equality to all Modern liberals go further arguing that society has discriminated against minorities > they promote greater tolerance and equality of opportunity which is consistent with their view of positive freedom and the enabling state There is a key role for state intention to discriminate in favour of groups who have suffered historical discrimination to ensure that there really is a level playing field for all Modern examples include the support for same sex marriage and the use of positive discrimination to promote real equality for women and minority ethnic groups

Answer 31

1836-62 English key thinker and Oxford academic as well as a member of the liberal party He was one of the major influences upon new or progressive liberalism and approached the notion of freedom in a far more communal rather than a highly individualistic manner Central to greens ideas is common good which constraints the individual rights so beloved of traditional liberals > this gives the state not just negative duties to refrain from interfering with freedoms and opportunities of citizens but also positive duties to provide resources and opportunities for individuals self realisation Freedom therefore should not be understood in a purely negative sense as freedom from. It should also be understood in a positive sense - the freedom of the individual to rise above the narrow concerns of self interest to contribute to common good of society by making the very best of their own unique talents and ability (freedom to) Postive freedom can only be achieved by removing hereditary privileges in society and tackling poverty. > TH Green was active in educational reform serving as an assistant commissioner on the Taunton commission on secondary education arguing for significant reforms to equalise opportunities for higher education Green argued that the state has to take a more positive role by freeing the poor from ignorance, disease, poor quality housing and exploitation in the workplace

Answer 32

1921-06 American liberal feminist thinker who approached modern liberalism in relation to true gender equality. Like other modern liberalism thinkers she argued that basic foundational equality, such as the right to vote had not solved the problem of power and wealth imbalance between the sexes > for genuine equality the state needed to intervene further and attitudes towards gender in a liberal democracy needed to change In the feminine mystique (1963) freidan argued that women’s traditional roles of being a wife and mother made women feel miserable and empty, nicknaming it the problem that has no name > the idea that a woman is who is a mother and wife has no time for a career massively limits her development and potential. Freidan argued that women like men should be able to maximise the choices available to them Women could be liberated by working productively outside the home and being allowed to have a full time career > she believed that marriage motherhood and a career could be balances but would require society to shift their attitudes and more practical help by the state in terms of childcare In her book the second stage (1981) Friedan argued that there needed to be changes to public an values as well as social institutions and leadership styles to allow all people to achieve personal fulfilment Friedman supported an activist women’s movement to bring this about > she was a founder member of the national organisation for women set up in 1966 This change would include the state not just grabbing formal equality but also actively intervening to tackle gender inequality and ensure real equality of opportunity. This might include granting state benefits to since, divorced or widowed mothers so they had equal opportunities to compete for jobs > Friedan was also a strong supporter of women’s access to birth control and of abortion rights

Answer 33

1921-02 Developed the idea of an enabling state based on the principle of justice as fairness and promoting a genuine equality of opportunity Rawls reaffirmed the liberal idea of foundational equality, arguing that everyone should have equal rights and basic liberties. He termed this the greatest equal liberty principle arguing that each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all > this was his overriding principle ensuring that basic liberties cannot be infringed on Rawls then developed the idea of the original position a thoight experiment where people construct the society they would like to live in. In this they would be under the veil of ignorance and have no idea of what sort of person they would be in the new society > Rational individuals would choose a more socially and economically equal society, as avoiding poverty is a greater motivation than the chance of wealth > therefore an enabling state with some wealth redistribution via taxation is consistent with the wider liberal goals of freedom and equality of opportunity This leads to the differences principle. Inequalities of wealth are legitimate as they incentivise people to work harder but only as long as they raise the income and wealth of the least well off. This meant that social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged The final principle is Rawls view of justice as fairness is the equality of opportunity principle. Here he argued that inequalities should only exist if ‘attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity’ > this meant that in Rawls state there could be scope for positive discrimination in university admissions in favour of the underrepresented or held back

Answer 34

All humans are born morally equal and so are deserving of equal natural rights which are enshrined in law as legal and political rights

Answer 35

Economic inequality is permissible is there is equality of opportunity and the inequalities in society are only justifiable if they are to the greatest benefit of the least well off

Answer 36

John Locke Locke was writing at a time when most of Europe was ruled by absolutist monarchies who rejected any notion of a mutually beneficial contract between ruler and ruled. The Glorious Revolution, which peacefully removed James ll from the English throne in favour of William and Mary, had just occurred (1688) when Two Treatises was published. This event embodied some of his key principles, including the belief in removing regimes that imperilled natural rights. Although broadly in favour of religious toleration, itself a radical idea in a time when most countries had a state church, in his A Letter Concerning Toleration, he excluded Roman Catholics. This reflects the view of that time that Catholicism was closely associated with royal absolutism and anti-liberal forces, as seen, for example, in France under Louis XIV, who believed in 'L'état c'est moi' - in other words, the monarch is the state. Mary Wollstonecraft In the 1790s, when Wollstonecraft was writing, women lacked the most basic political rights, such as the right to vote, irrespective of their wealth or social class. Married women also had little by way of property rights. In addition, the French Revolution had just occurred, an event she supported. John Stuart Mill Mill was writing at the time Britain was beginning its journey towards a democratic state with the passage of the Second Reform Act (1867). This led him to be concerned about the implications for the politics of democracy if the newly enfranchised were not educated, and about the possibility of the 'tyranny of the majority'. Extension of the franchise also led him to argue for the inclusion of women in an expanded electorate. Thomas Hill Green By the second half of the nineteenth century, the Industrial Revolution had caused profound social and economic changes in Britain. Green was shocked at how largely unregulated, free-market capitalism and the small state beloved of classical liberals had failed to solve the problem of poverty. Self-help and basic foundational equality had not proved effective in creating a society where true equality of opportunity existed for individuals. John Rawls Rawls was writing in Cold War America, where the American Dream remained out of reach for many. Like Green, he wanted a capitalist society where the poorest were enabled and given true equality of opportunity by a more active and enlarged state. His arguments could also be seen as a response both to Soviet-style socialism and to New Right and neo-liberal views including those of his fellow Harvard academic Robert Nozick. Betty Friedan Despite the achievement of basic equality in terms of the vote, property ownership and access to education, at the time Friedan was writing in the 1960s many American women, especially housewives, felt unfulfilled. It was still largely accepted that married women should embrace motherhood and a primarily domestic role on becoming a wife. The 1960s was also an age of great social upheaval and protest across much of the western world - seen, for example, in the civil rights and peace movements.

Answer 37

The second half of the twentieth century to the present Essentially a reaction to the modern and progressive liberal thinkers like Rawls and the growth of state intervention and control It is primarily concerned with economic rather than social issues The most prominent neo-liberal key thinker FA Hayek author of the road to serfdom (1944) sought to return liberalism to its classical roots. Neoliberalism has been most closely associated with conservatives like thatcher and Reagan Neoliberalism also aims to roll back the welfare state and Keynesian economic management to return to a free market and minimal state

Answer 38

Aimed to reapply the economic ideas of free market capitalism and to campaign for a night watchman state Private property and negative freedom are central to freedom and individualism > Hayek argued without private ownership of the press there can be no freedom of press The welfare state was the betrayal of individualism replacing it with the collectivism favoured by socialism. This involves the state placing unjustifiable restrictions on individual liberty such as high levels of taxation. They also believe it creates a culture of dependency where people don’t help themselves Free trade and markets as well as globalisation are the best drivers of economic and social progress

Answer 39

Individualism is key - the individual rather than classes or races is they key basis for thinking about human nature, state, society and the economy On one hand the individual is unique with their own talents and abilities while on the other hand everyone is morally equal on the basis that they are all individuals Locke argues that all individuals have a natural right to life, liberty and property as each individual is unique and equal this places freedom as a core liberal value. Humans flourish and progress when they are given the widest possible freedom to make rational decisions, own property and establish their own beliefs lifestyles and values > JS Mill stated over himself over his own body and mind the individual is sovereign Egotistical individualism is associated with classical liberals who see the individual as self seeking self reliant and independent and view society as nothing more than a collection of individuals Modern liberals have focused on developmental individualism by building on the ideas of JS mill > TH Green agreed that individuals are free whne they rise above narrow self interests to participate in a shared way of life and contribute to the common good by improving themselves

Answer 40

They have an optimistic view that emerged from the enlightenment and opposed the religious view that humankind is imperfect and flawed found in the concept of original sin Locke argued that humans are naturally free equal and independent and are not naturally under the authority of other people meaning there is no need for a state to protect people from themselves > based on their possession of reason Humans are rational and tolerant and able to understand the views of others and respect their life liberty and possessions > disputes can be settled through ration discussion and challenges can be overcome with reason The ability of the individual to pursue their own rational self interests produces indivisible happiness and social progress Wollestonecraft applied liberal views about human nature and potential to women - a point also taken by mill Over time liberal key thinkers began to view this approach as being too optimistic and simplistic. > it was felt that the egotistical nature of human nature led to inequality so the state needs to promote equality of opportunity > green and Friedan agree Friedan saw that human nature, left unchecked by the state had produced gender inequality stopping women from achieving individual happiness Green argued that human nature was not just self interested but rather had a societal dimension as individuals can only grow and flourish in a society where everyone can Rawls argued that human nature had the capacity for toleration and mutual respect alongside the desire to improve the living standards of the poorest and thereby reduce wealth inequality

Answer 41

The idea that the collective rather than the individual is the main economic, social and political unit

Answer 42

The virtue of not using one’s power to interfere with another’s opinion or action over something morally important and where you morally disapprove of that opinion or action

Answer 43

Social position and economic reward are based on talent and hard work. Where there is equality of opportunity there is an incentive to work hard and realise your talent ensuring everyone gets what they deserve and that society is led by the most talented

Answer 44

Individualism and capitalism are key but are best supported by the right kind of state The state is a human construction built to ensure that the natural rights of laws and of natural society are safeguarded so that individuals can flourish > where there is no law, there is no freedom - Locke Based on the social contract theory the individual consents to the state while the state protects natural rights allowing the individual to flourish. It is only rational for the individual to consent to the state while it protects those rights better than in the state of nature. While the state fails to do so it is rational for the in dial to withdraw consent and replace the government Government by consent is government from below - through free fair and regular elections this consent can be given voluntarily by the people Locke argues that the state must be limited to stop the emergence of a tyrannical government which can be done by a constitution and fragmented government Modern liberals have supported universal suffrage while being concerned about the tyranny of the majority so place emphasis on a constitution to limit the power of government > mill developed lockes ideas arguing that government must only intervene when it is necessary to protect the liberties and freedoms of the individual and should tolerate all actions and ideas as long as they don’t violate the harm principle The state should be a meritocracy to promote individualism allowing individuals to rise to the top as a result of their hard work and talents rather than through the hereditary principle and the artificial privilege of aristocracy As all are born morally equal all should receive equal opportunities to flourish and achieve happiness and success or failure is down to the individual solely Modem liberals are more positive about the state's ability to improve people's lives and see an expanded role of the state in helping people to help themselves. Green argued that the removal of poverty - via education, public housing full potential. The role of the state was taken further by Rawls to include increased taxation and public spending to ensure that there was social justice and equality of opportunity for all. The power of the government must not be arbitrary or concentrated in the hands of one person. Liberalism has promoted limited government as the ideal structure for the state

Answer 45

Constitutionalism is a key feature of limited government, where the written constitution formalizes the contract between the government and the people. It clearly outlines the rules and procedures that the government must adhere to and protects the natural rights of citizens. This ensures that governmental power is exercised within defined limits, promoting accountability and safeguarding individual freedoms. Fragmented government further limits the concentration of power by dispersing it across various institutions. This is achieved through the separation of powers among the executive, legislature, and judiciary. Additionally, bicameralism, with two legislative houses, ensures a more balanced distribution of authority. A system of checks and balances prevents any one branch from becoming too powerful. Fragmentation is also achieved through federalism, where power is divided between central and regional governments, each possessing distinct areas of jurisdiction. Formal equality guarantees that all individuals are entitled to the same legal rights, ensuring that everyone is equal before the law. This includes political rights, such as the right to vote, and broader legal protections outlined in a Bill of Rights. These rights safeguard citizens from arbitrary decisions by elected governments, ensuring fair treatment and justice for all. The rule of law is fundamental to protecting natural rights and establishing a framework of rules that apply to everyone equally. This principle holds regardless of whether individuals are ordinary citizens or members of the government. It ensures that no one is above the law and promotes liberty by protecting individuals from discrimination based on gender, race, religion, or class.

Answer 46

The optimistic view of human nature underpins the liberal view of society Locke argued that in the state of nature there would be a natural society as there are natural rights such as life, liberty and possessions and natural law which states that no one should harm another’s natural rights Natural society is built on the principle of individualism. As natural society is one of peace the state should behave as a neutral umpire, safeguarding natural law the natural rights found in natural society Wollstonecraft was critical of society for its failure to recognise the rights of women Mill argued that the main aim of society is to provoke individualism Society should be tolerant and diverse, respecting the individuals rights to hold their own beliefs and values as long as they do not restrict the rights of others For Locke in a letter concerning toleration (1689) this involved religious toleration as religion was a private matter and should be left to the individual Mill took this further seeing toleration and diversity as key ingredients of a vibrant and progressive society > competition sharpens and refines good ideas Liberals have championed the rights of minority groups that have been discriminated against by society based on gender, sexual orientation, race or religion Friedan argued that the state had to be more proactive with positive discrimination to ensure there was real equality of opportunity for women in the present

Answer 47

Liberalisms central belief in the right to property established by Locke underpins its approach to the economy The free market based on private property incentivises the decision to make rational decisions about contracts, buying and selling labour, how to save invest and spend and raising capital and starting businesses > this is the embodiment of freedom so liberals support this notion (capitalism) The government Should be limited to ensure that property is secure and contacts are honoured to allow for free trade and competition - a free market The invisible hand of the market is automatic guiding individuals to make rational choices > where products are scarce people will pay more and investment is made to increase production - where products are abundant people will pay less and investment is moved elsewhere This optimistic view sees the market guiding individuals to economic success creating wealth for all Modern liberals like green saw free market capitalism as creating social and economic obstacles to people achieving their full potential > this led modern liberals to support the Keynesian theory Feminist liberals have argued that women should be given full and equal access to employment opportunities to enable them to contribute fully to a free market economy. > later writers such as Friedan argued for more state involvement to bring this about including anti discrimination measures

Answer 48

Agreement: An optimistic view of human nature and progress > liberals view individuals as morally equal, independent and rational with a desire to pursue their version of a good life Individualism needs to be protected and promoted and there should be toleration of different values, beliefs and versions of the good life Tensions: Classical liberals and neo liberals see these qualities as innate for individuals and that they develop best when people are left to pursue their own happiness Modern liberals build on mills view that rationalism needs to be developed and individualism is more of a reflection of what humans can become especially via education than simply what they are Green saw human nature as having a clear social dimension arguing that freedom is achieved by working towards the common good > this provides the basis for the state to enable individuals to help themselves via equality of opportunity Feminist and modern liberals apply the same levels of rationality to both men and women > early liberals like Locke were less concerned with gender equality

Answer 49

Agreement: The states role is to promote, protect and uphold individual freedoms and thus enable individual flourishing of talents and enterprise All liberals argue that the state should be limited by constitutionalism the fragmentation of power, equality for citizens and the rule of law Tension: Classical liberals argued that the state should have a night watchman role, justified by the concept of negative freedom with intervention justified only to prevent actions that are harmful to others > this will leave the individual free to pursue their own version of the good life Modern liberals believe in more of an enabling state where there is more intervention to make people free to pursue their own individuality > in line with the concept of positive freedom Classical liberals such as Locke favoured a representative government that only favoured the interests of property owning individuals Modern liberals favoured representative democracy with universal suffrage and strong constitutional limits but are concerned that democracy may lead to a tyranny of the majority > they view education as crucial to people voting wisely

Answer 50

Agreement: Society could exist without the state > in this state of nature natural rights and law would be present reflecting the liberalist view in humankind being an innately social creature All liberals stress individualism and freedom in society and that society should be attended to allow the individual to flourish and achieve their own self fulfilment Tension: Classical liberals argued that natural society existed before the state and was peaceful > individuals are self seeking and Independent but constrained by their rational nature which leads them to respect the rights of others so their rights are protected in turn Modern liberals see modern industrial societies based around free market capitalism as restricting the ability of individuals to be free > this leads to support for social justice where poverty and inequality as well as any discrimination based on identity are tackled by the state to ensure positive freedom Neo liberals hark back negative freedom arguing that the enabling state has unjustly reduced liberty and created a dependency culture which limits individualism by taking away people’s self reliance

Answer 51

Agreement: Emerging from lockes natural laws all liberals emphasise the right to own property and advocate an economy based on private property as the best route to creating wealth Property is seen as essential to freedom and protecting the individual from the state Tensions: Classical and Neo liberals adopt the view that the states only role is to protect property and enforce contracts and that the market should be left Free trade without subsidies, taxes or regulations will provide the most efficient outcomes and drive economic creativity and prosperity for all Modern liberals argue that the state is justified in intervening in the economy using the tools of taxation and public spending in order to be able to manage capitalism so that it delivers employment for all Modern liberals also argue that employment provides the necessary wealth to reduce poverty so that everyone can be free to choose their own version of a good life > the means of production should be left in the hands of private companies as a safeguard of personal liberty

Answer 52

A political approach that tends to be suspicious of radical change and promotes change only to conserve.

Answer 53

Began as a response to the French Revolution Focused on the value of custom, tradition and continuity rather than the abstract ideals of liberalism Did not believe a perfect society based on reason could exist Promoted the idea of change to conserve Saw human nature as flawed and limited in its grasp of the world Emphasised organic society over individualism with society dependent on bonds of trust and affection (local communities and groups like families, churches and schools) State needed to be strong to provide order peace and stability seen as vital to society and freedom > hierarchy over equality and democracy

Answer 54

Conservatives opposing radical change as they view society as organic > long established institutions and practices like the monarchy and parliamentary sovereignty reflect the accumulated wisdom of the past and the tried and tested

Answer 55

Society is a natural complex body like a tree > it develops and grows slowly, needs constant nurturing and pruning to ensure its health and should not be uprooted through something radical like revolution

Answer 56

Key principle in conservatism Human nature and society are naturally divided by wealth, status and power > there is a natural ruling class with the necessary wealth and power to govern and the masses should obey the elite that govern in their interest

Answer 57

Conservative (1588-1679) Wrote in response to the English civil war Human nature - the most gloomy and cynical - sees humans as endlessly in pursuit of power in order to satisfy their immediate desires and any potential future desires - desire for both is selfish and competitive - humans are roughly equal in strength and ability so must be fearful of others as the weakest has enough strength to kill the strongest State of nature - scarce resources meaning humans desire for power is roughly equal and there will be a war of every man against every man - argued that life in the state of nature will be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short - the first natural law is that man should seek peace as far as he can and then if not use war - as humans are rational it is reasonable to believe that people will rise above the state of nature for self preservation > this is achieved by agreeing a social contract between themselves and their ruler Power of the sovereign - the social contract of the people establishes a sovereign > absolute power to provide order security and stability which will lead to the emergence of society - key for Hobbes was that sovereign power was placed in one supreme authority which was not limited by legal rights of other bodies - preferred monarchy as a form of government or a system where one person has absolute authority - the social contract is made between the people, not the people and sovereign > when the contract is complete the people only have the rights that the sovereign chooses to give to them

Answer 58

Government, the free market and the individual

Answer 59

Human nature, the state, society and the economy

Answer 60

Traditional one nation conservatives and the new right

Answer 61

An end goal - it has no view of a type of society or economy that it is working towards and so lacks any concrete idea of progress or development

Answer 62

Yes - this can mean it is seen as having no underlying principles > this has allowed it to develop and adapt to preserve inequality and priveledge which can be seen in the gradual acceptance of democracy to preserve hierarchy

Answer 63

Gradual change and the traditions that leave them open to preserving inequality and privilege > support the traditions of monarchy but not movements like trade unions > this has been challenged with traditional and new right individuals putting forward their views

Answer 64

Hierarchy - human nature and society are naturally divided by wealth, status and power Paternalism - the ruling elite have a sense of obligation and duty to the many: government should act like a father to its children > governing in the best interests remembering that they may have a better view of those than the people, the people should show deference to their leaders Order - the government provides clear rules discipline and guidance to ensure that society is ordered, peaceful and stable > this creates a responsible citizen and ensures that freedom benefits everyone and is not abused Freedom - traditional conservatism is about freedom and the limits to freedom placed by institutions that allow everyone to enjoy it responsibly > allows people to understand that their good behaviour will be reciprocated by others, partly due to fear of breaking the law Social attitudes - traditional conservatism upholds that there are proven moral values that ensure stability and certainty > these include traditional marriage and conventional family life with gender roles > individual freedoms are limited to protect these attitudes and values Little platoons - society is a collection of little platoons, not individuals > each community provides the sense of security order and stability that an individual desires Change to conserve - change and reform must be gradual and respect the accumulated wisdom of tradition Empiricism - focusing on what works (traditions and customs) rather than what theory and abstract principles says will work

Answer 65

Politics should be based on what works most effectively not on abstract principles or ideas > emerged from the politics of imperfection as humans are limited in what they are able to know and understand about the world

Answer 66

Conservatism - often described as the father of it 1729-97 Was a Whig MP and his thinking was based on this: the Whigs had an opposition to arbitrary absolute power American and French Revolution - supporter of American as if aimed to protect the ancient rights and privileges of the people but opposed French as it was based on abstract theory and idealism borne out of frustration with the French power structure and the resultant poverty of the majority Human nature - had a broadly sceptical view of human nature and saw the individual as foolish but the species as wise - he argued that humans could not rely on the individual reason (rationalism) but could rely on tradition and custom > the general bank and capital of nations and ages - Burke also opposed the idea of a social contract suggested by Hobbes - argued that the only contract that existed was between ‘the dead, the living and the yet to be born’ > the present must protect and nurture past tradition to pass it on to future generations - the French Revolution was a destruction of that contract as it destroyed existing institutions and so removed the inheritance of those yet to be born Society - highly critical of individualism defending the importance of ‘we’ > little platoons are places where traditions and customs are formed which are the bank of knowledge developed from trial and error in dealing with political problems - in this sense society is organic as it develops naturally and traditions and customs change slowly based on practical knowledge and evidence, not theory > Burke also attacked the French revolutions emphasis on equality, arguing that the hierarchy was natural in organic societies

Answer 67

Threat of disorder - emerged from the threat to the order of state and society from socialism, class conflict and the effects of free market capitalism that emerged from classical liberalism. > one nation updates traditional conservatisms ideas to deal with this threat One nation - should emphasis and focus on the bonds of affection and trust that hold society together as part of a nation. All classes and troupe in society are part of one nation because society is organic where damage and distress to one element will damage the whole. > ‘the place is not safe when the cottage is not happy’ - Benjamin Disraeli Change to conserve - Disraeli was concerned with the effects on society of an unchecked free market. He accepted the rise of big cities and the spirit of commercialism as inevitable so did not want reactionary policies to head back to a previous time and instead wanted to tackle the worst consequences of the market to conserve society Paternalism - there is a clear bond between groups so it is clear that the wealthy have a responsibility to the less well off. This would involve the state intervening in the free merry economy and society in order to ensure social stability

Answer 68

Conservative 1901-90 Updated the conservative approach to human nature and the conservative view on gradual reform - saw humans as fragile and fallible unable to understand the world as it was too complex for them to grasp - highly critical of the politics of rationalism which is the idea of remaking society based on the abstract ideas and principles of political philosophers - abstract ideas will always fail because they are not based on concrete experience > worse, the remaking of society can do untold damage to traditions which are based on hundreds of years of practical experience - humans and societies prefer instead ‘the familiar to the unknown… the actual to the possible’ so a pragmatic and empirical view works best - rejected politics of faith with its faith in the go enemy to improve the condition of mankind or even to perfect mankind. In its place he proposed the politics of skepticism as the governments attempts to perfect mankind are dangerous for human liberty and dignity - the idea of a perfection is absorbed and there should be skepticism about the ability of government - staffed by individuals like us - to use their power justly and efficiently > governments role should instead be limited to preserving public order - conservatism is a disposition rather than an ideology and although conservatives are disposed towards limited government it should not be the basis on some abstract ideal - argued that ‘ in political activity, men sail a boundless and bottomless sea; there is neither harbour for shelter nor flood for anchorage , neither starting place, nor appointed destination. The enterprise is to keep afloat on an even keel’

Answer 69

Origins - ideas of Hobbes and Burke emerged from reactions to the horrors of the English civil wars and French Revolution, the new right can be traced back to the rise of authoritarian regimes in the twentieth century such as Nazi Germany and stalins Soviet Union - the new right is also a response to the growth of the state in western democracies and after WW2, the development of the welfare state and increased taxation Small state - partly inspired by ‘morality of rational self interest’ - for rational self interest to be the key principle of society, the state needs to be rolled back > for example the state should be limited to providing the armed forces, a police force and a court system to ensure that property is respected and contracts are enforced - the new right opposes public spending on welfare as it is both unjust and creates a dependency culture Free market capitalism - the new right believes that market forces are the best method for distribution and management of society’s resources - deep cuts in taxes, privatisation and deregulation and tight restrictions on government spending are needed to return to free market capitalism. > Everyone should be free to follow all the opportunities they can in the market place, with minimal levels of taxation and regulation in order to create greater prosperity for all - echoes of this can be found in trickle down economics where cutting taxes for the richest will trickle down to benefit everyone Society - divided into neo conservatives who wish to return to a society built on authority, national identity and traditional morality and Neo liberals who advocate for a society built on individual choice - Neo conservatives are anti permissive and would extend the role of the state to promote traditional family values like marriage and to protect national security and defence > they fear the impact of immigration on social cohesion and national identity - for Neo liberals individual choice is not just about economics but also morality > the state should not intervene in areas of private morality and should be stripped back to the minimum to minimise tax and spending > Neo liberals are relaxed about immigration as it is natural for a free market to have free movement of people and labour - although there is tensions in the new right , Neo conservatives and Neo liberals can work together in a complementary fashion

Answer 70

Neo conservatives believe… - the state should be strengthened in terms of protecting law and order as well as promoting traditional values and patriotism - restrict individual liberties to promote law and order and national security (increased police power and longer prison sentences). The state should direct the moral life of society - increase spending to promote the country abroad and for defence and national security Neo liberalists believe… - roll back the frontiers of the state (spending cuts, privatisation and deregulation) - advance liberty through the reduction of tax and the reduction of the welfare state > the state has no role in intervening in areas of private morality - minimise government spending in all areas where possible but accept the need for government funding of defence and justice Areas of agreement… - free latter economics creates tensions as inequality may flourish increasing the need for law and order and the protection of private property > strong but limited state - the smaller state means those in need will need support and guidance from society in the forms of little platoons to promote the bonds of affection and trust between individuals and communities - reducing funding in other areas like welfare to concentrate money on law and order, promoting the country and national security

Answer 71

A rejection of permissiveness which is the liberal belief that people should make their own moral choices (abortion, marriage and relationships) and the state should impose social order and morality by promoting traditional values and tough law and order policies.

Answer 72

Conservatism > 1905-82 One of the most radical thinkers of the new right > she wrote Atlas Shrugged (1957) and Virtue of Selfishness (1964) Born in Russia but escaped to the USA as a young adult Witnessed and Russian revolution and creation of a one party state Her family lost their property and wealth during the upheavals Argued man must exist for their own sake and not sacrifice themselves to others nor others to themself in the pursuit of rational self interest Believed selfishness didn’t mean doing what you pleased but more pursuing your own hapiness and treating others as individuals Believed the ideal social system was free market capitalism which involved a separation of state and economics Believed in meritocracy: the most talented individuals start their own businesses and invest in new technologies using their own abilities to create wealth and trade with other rational egotists to reach their goals States role is vital but strictly limited to acting as a policeman, protecting the rights of each individual against criminals and foreign invaders

Answer 73

The concept that society is it exists is a collection of INDIVIDUALS persuing their own individual lives and being reap on bile for themselves. Collective identities like class are meaningless

Answer 74

A political system where the state has a large degree of control over social and economic affairs

Answer 75

Rands philosophy based on the principles of reason, self interest and capitalism which she claims will deliver freedom, justice, progress and human happiness. It is set against statism or collectivism where people’s life and work belongs to the state which she thinks leads to slavery

Answer 76

She’s radically individual and atheist which breaks rank with traditional conservatisms view of human imperfection and emphasis on the importance of tradition

Answer 77

She doesn’t reject the state as a concept but argues it must be limited in its power and intrusion

Answer 78

They believed the sucesses of talented individuals created the moral space and material for the less talented to thrive too. This is more positive than what is traditionally associated with conservatism

Answer 79

Conservatism > 1938-2002 Became one of the new rights key thinkers > wrote anarchy, state and utopia (1974): an attack on socialism and wealth redistribution of any kind Optimistic view of human nature All individuals have self ownership and are the owners of their own body, mind and abilities Believed individuals had rights that existed before any social contract or state As individuals are so central, liberty is the fundamental value of > this means individuals should be free from any legally enforced obligations Ik either the social or economic sphere Any attempts to achieve social justice through wealth redistribution and tax is forced labour and violates liberty Wilt chamberlain argument > basketball player who asked for 25c of every ticket sale in their contract and earned over $250,000 from this > nozick believed this was just as the contract was freely entered into by all parties A minimalist state could be justifies if it is strictly limited to protection of person, property and contract > concession to conservative view that the state does not need to be strong but limited Nozicks positive view of human nature led him to conclude that there are only different individual people with their own lives who are dignified and rational in pursuit of their own goals rather than competing atoms The minimal state is just but inspiring allowing for the emergence and peaceful co existence of voluntarily formed communities with their own morals, values and ideals > as long as individuals are free to contract in or out of these communities it allows them to fully explore and live their own lives

Answer 80

To illustrate nozicks justification of inequalities in wealth resulting from freely exchanged contracts

Answer 81

The English civil wars of the 1640s convinced Hobbes for the need of a strong and powerful state that would prioritise peace and order over civil rights

Answer 82

The French Revolution in the late 18th century made Burke hostile to violent revolution and states based on abstract ideas. Instead he values the notion of a natural and organic state

Answer 83

The experience of both the Second World War and the post war welfare state led lakeshore to emphasises the importance of pragmatism by governments. He also rejected the ideas of utopian societies, both left and right wing

Answer 84

She grew up during the Russian Revolution and gained an intense hatred for socialism and collectivism. She subsequently experienced the USA and growth of the federal government which led her to fear a similar restriction on individual freedom in the USA as well

Answer 85

Wrote in a period similar to Rand, emphasising individual freedom and rejecting higher taxes that an expanded post war state required from its citizens. He largely wrote to challenge the liberal ideas of John Rawls

Answer 86

Agree that government is necessary to provide order, security and stability. The govt should be limited in size but should be committed to preserving and protecting the nation state. However, there is disagreement among conservatives about how far the government can play a role in the economy and society and in people’s choices, morality and private lives

Answer 87

The free market built on the principle of private property and capitalism is central to a thriving economy that can provide wealth for all One nation conservatism argues, based on the principle of paternalism that the wealthy have a duty to the less wealthy Inequalities plus large influxes of cheap labour and imports threatens stability so a more interventionist role for the state in the economy is needed Neo liberals would minimise the role of the state in the economy to create the conditions for individuals to help themselves and have their hard work and creativity fully rewarded

Answer 88

Support the view that freedom and choice for the individual are important. However, conservatives also argue the state needs to provide stability and order for freedom and choice to exist so they support strong law and order measures Traditional conservatives support a more interventionist state to protect the organic society whereas Neo-liberals tend to see society in agnostic terms so place a far greater value on the individual and a small state

Answer 89

Most conservatives with the exception of the new right have a more pessimistic view of human nature Conservatism has been described as a philosophy of imperfection that stresses the weakness of human nature This leads conservatives to argue that the idea of a perfect society is unachievable and dangerous. The liberal idea of society built on rational individuals is not based on true human nature, whereas the socialist idea that society can perfect humanity is deeply misplaced as human nature if fixed and constant

Answer 90

Hobbes was very cynical but argued human nature is rational > saw humans as selfish and fearful of others > rational aspect places him closer to liberalism rather than traditional conservatism Burke was sceptical also agreeing with Hobbes that human nature if neither flawless nor could be perfected. However he did not see human nature as individualistic, selfish and brutal like Hobbes > viewed humans as flawed but capable of goodness and affection of their actions are informed by tradition > humans naturally seek bonds of trust with others in ‘little platoons’ Oakeshott saw human nature as fragile and fallible with an instinctive preference for the known over the unknown > where humans have security and they live their lives by tradition and morality they can be benign and benevolent > focus on imperfection highlights human fallibility rather than human potential which underpins the opposition to utopian visions of radical movements and ideas > basically means politics of scepticism rather than faith Rand and Nozick thought that human nature was positive and saw humans as rational > the new right leaves individuals to make their own choices in the social and economic sphere which leads to an inspiring and fulfilling future of human achievement

Answer 91

The central purpose of the state is to provide national security and law and order

Answer 92

Hobbes argued people can come together to create a sovereign in a social contract > created order and stability to allow thriving Broke argued that there was no social contract and only one between the dead, living and the yet to be born > the state is natural and organic and emerges in response to human needs Traditional conservatives see an active role for the state in protecting and promoting the interests of all citizens Burke argued hierarchy was natural and that the state and ruling class has a sense of public service to the less well off Trad conservatives see the state as paternalistic > argue for moderate social reform and intervention to benefit the less fortunate Burke was opposed to fast centralised and remote state structures favouring local communities where there are natural bonds of trust duty and loyalty Oakeshott believed the state should be guided by pragmatism The new right thought the state should be small > existing only for national security, to enforce contract and to maintain law and order For Nozick the welfare state and taxation was legalised theft and could be compared to forced labour

Answer 93

Paternalistic > society is organic and living with individuals bound together by common ties, obligations and responsibilities Tradition custom and continuity are Crucial > against radical change Shared values and morals also provide common ties Hobbes argued society could only exist when stability, authority and order were present Burke held an organic view of society with a natural hierarchy of those with talent > also favoured a society based around little platoons Oakeshott emphasised the importance of the known, the tried and tested and was skeptical about human progress

Answer 94

Rand and Nozick directly challenged the organic view and saw it as atomistic > more positive view of human progress Society has no right to place obligations or restrictions on the individual which as traditions, signers and shared values and morals > Rand said she found homosexuality disgusting but still did not think it should be banned by the state

Answer 95

Private property is good and its ownership is a fundamental right Provides the individual with safety and security People respect each others property rights meaning it provides the basis for order Property is an expression of the individual Restrictions on property will limit individual freedom, creativity and hard work

Answer 96

Capitalism if the most efficient and effective way of creating wealth > links to conservatives view of human nature as selfish Wealth inequality is natural and a rejection of the different talents, hard work and efforts of individuals in society The desire to impose wealth equality on society is immoral

Answer 97

Hobbes argued that a powerful sovereign to imposes order and stability to essential to the economy Burke focused on the importance of property rights > argued that natural elites had a responsibility to provide for lower classes via a paternalistic role rather than govt Traditional conservatives supported protectionism > mixed economy and welfarism Oakeshott saw private property as a form of security and power The new right staunchly defended the free market > trickle down economics Nozick claimed the welfare state was forced labour

Answer 98

Trad: Politics of imperfection dominates the understanding of human nature > need for order stability and tradition > sceptical approach based on pragmatism New right: Optimistic view of human nature based on rationalism > minimal state with a free market will provide the basis for the individual to flourish > strongly ideological approach based on the principles of small state and the free market

Answer 99

Trad: The state should be dominated by a natural ruling class which should govern in the interests of the people > state should take an active role to ensure the stability of one nation New right: Rolling back of the state to create a smaller stronger state providing security, law and order > maximises freedom and reverses dependency culture > no natural hierarchy but instead a meritocracy

Answer 100

Trad: Society is organic based on little platoons Tradition, custom and practice are important to provide continuity > change to conserve The new right: Society is a collection of individuals rational pursing their own ends Should be meritocratic > allowing the most talented to thrive and lead Tradition custom and practice should be challenged and changed if they stand in the way of individual freedom of the free market

Answer 101

Trad: The free market based on the principle of private property is the best creator of wealth > can create tensions and divisions so moderate reform and regulatory intervention may be necessary to conserve and protect against radicalism New right: The free market should be unregulated becasue it creates the most wealth, productivity and freedom for all > allows innovation and the best ideas to drive the economy > creates generalised wealth and raises the living standards for all via trickle down economics

Answer 102

The ideology of equality, especially social equality, seen as a prerequisite of freedom and society built on collective action and generally defined by opposition of capitalism

Answer 103

An equal distribution of wealth, income and status within society. However, within socialism there is a disagreement about how far equality should extend

Answer 104

Working together in order to active mutual benefit as co operating is both more effective than and morally superior to individual competition

Answer 105

Those who adhere to the blue print for an ideal, future society or utopia to illustrate how life will be better under socialism

Answer 106

A scientific analysis of the economic development of society that reveals the divisions of society into distinct classes locked into struggle with each other. The struggle is the motor of history, meaning it is inevitable that socialism will replace capitalism

Answer 107

The early 19th century from the interaction between the enlightenment and emerging issues such as the rich poor divide created by the Industrial Revolution and modern capitalism

Answer 108

By the utopian socialists Charles Fourier and Robert Owen

Answer 109

They aimed to apply the ideals of the enlightenment to the problem that the wealthy and powerful were making society increasingly unequal Owen believed human nature was malleable and argued that the conditions of capitalism were creating lives of vice, misery and conduct that was unbecoming of rational individuals He was convinced that given the right environment he could create cooperative dutiful beings Karl Marx was critical of this and saw it as utopian as if put forward an ideal without the conditions to make it possible > Marx and Engels offered scientific socialism which shows how socialism would inevitably replace capitalism rather than why it should

Answer 110

Criticising

Answer 111

Socialism favours equality of some sort > most socialists have viewed capitalism as an unequal economic system that concentrates wealth in the hands of the few and condemns the many to poverty and powerlessness > to them, this creates totally unnaceptable differences in life chances in deeply divided societies

Answer 112

The individualism of conservatism and liberalism produces competition not co operation and inequality not fairness > society is enhanced by collective action as working together is morally superior and more economically beneficial > true humanity comes from being part of a genuine community that will replace the isolation and marginalisation people experience under capitalism

Answer 113

Socialism is a challenge and a response to the presumed negative effects of capitalism and what’s change to the distribution of resource in the favour of the many not the few. > There are clear tensions hete between the revolutionary road and the parliamentary road to socialism

Answer 114

Socialism favours a society built on the principles of freedom, equality and community, although the different strands of socialism have differing understandings of these terms and how to value them

Answer 115

Socialists believe in the changing nature of humanity over time as human nature is shaped by society rather than being fixed. However, there is common humanity in that humans have the need to be social beings and desire freedom equality and community

Answer 116

Marx’s view of historical change is based on the idea that changes in the way humans work together to produce things then change the way society is organised and the attitudes of people in that society

Answer 117

The Marxist term for the class that owns the means of production in capitalism

Answer 118

The Marxist term for the class in capitalism that has to sell their labour to the bourgeoisie in order to survive as it has no ownership over the means of production

Answer 119

To explain the world in which you live and what is wrong with society

Answer 120

Historical materialism

Answer 121

The struggle between contending groups in society

Answer 122

The relations between those who own the means of production and those who do not

Answer 123

The move from production by crafts people, often in their homes to steam powered machinery and industrial production in larger factories

Answer 124

Accumulated huge wealth and overthrew the existing feudal class relations between land owners and peasants

Answer 125

Presented for the first time the chance for humans to live free from oppression, and poverty through its revolutionary technological changes and ability to create wealth > this mainly only applies to the bourgeoisie

Answer 126

A large proletariat who had to sell their labour to survive and concentrated wealth in the hands of the bourgeoisie

Answer 127

In creating the proletariat, famously seen by Marx as the grave diggers of capitalism, the capitalist system is the precondition for socialism

Answer 128

The contradictions between the classes created by the means of production, are essential to understanding the world

Answer 129

Workers are alienated from their labour as they work to produce commodities which are owned by the capitalists and sold for profit rather than producing what is needed or useful. The workers can see that the more wealth they produce the poorer they become as labour becomes a commodity to be purchased at the lowest possible price.

Answer 130

It is driven by internal contradictions as the desire for profit drives down wages and living standards for the workers while increasing the accumulation of wealth in the hands of the few > this makes capitalism increasingly unstable and prone to economic crisis

Answer 131

Workers becoming conscious of sharing common complaints against capitalism and then develop an awareness of themselves as forming a social class, the proletariat, opposed to the bourgeoisie

Answer 132

Alienation and exploitation as the worker is forced to face with sober senses his real conditions of life and his relations with his kind

Answer 133

Rise up and overthrow the existing society and state and replace them with socialism

Answer 134

As not a neutral but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie > the communist manifesto 1848 > as such the socialist revolution must overthrow the state, society and the existing economic system based on private property

Answer 135

The transitional phase from capitalism to communism where the workers state protects the gains of the revolution and replaces private ownership with common ownership

Answer 136

The means of production are placed in the hands of the workers so that they can control their working lives and the economy as a whole

Answer 137

Be a short term strategy to collectivise all property into common ownership for the good of all

Answer 138

Strong opposition - the dictatorship of the proletariat would need to defeat the opposing forces through force in something like a civil war

Answer 139

The end of class and class conflict > with exploitation being a thing of the past there would be no need for struggles over political power > there would be no need for a workers state once the class struggle has ended and there will be true democracy as all will be free

Answer 140

As society transforms from socialism to communism

Answer 141

A classless society with no state and the common ownership of wealth. Production of would be necessary for consumption and use and to satisfy need rather than profit, freeing humans creative energies and allowing freedom for all

Answer 142

Marx and engels

Answer 143

The communist manifesto (1848) Das kapital (1867) > provide a powerful analyses and critique of capitalism and a guide to political action

Answer 144

‘The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles’ > it was the history of conflict between the oppressed and oppressor that ends in the revolutionary remaking of society along communist lines

Answer 145

Split society into two great hostile camps - into two classes directly facing each other - bourgeoisie and proletariat

Answer 146

Societies values, culture and the political institutions of the state is a key reflection of the material base > it therefore reinforces the interest of whoever controls the means of production

Answer 147

Top left: Downwards arrow representing reinforcing and legitimising the base Bottom left: Material base Means of production: technology, raw materials, land, factories Relations of production: The bourgeoisie and proletariat Top right: Law, religion, politics and ideology, media, education, the arts and culture Bottom right: Arrow pointing upwards representing things that shape the ideological superstructure

Answer 148

This means that the state, law, religion, the media, education, the arts and culture reflect the values and ideals of the ruling class. In capitalism these are the values and ideologies of the bourgeoisie > the ideological structure creates a false consciousness among the proletariat who are led to believe there is no alternative world than the one they exist in

Answer 149

That a communist society cannot be created using the bourgeoisie state so revolution is necessary

Answer 150

As it is driven by historical materialism and it must be delivered from below by the working class

Answer 151

A dictatorship of the proletariat to bring all private property into common ownership and defend the gains of the revolution against the dispossessed bourgeoisie

Answer 152

It is worth linking your discussion of socialism to recent historical examples. The collapse of communism in the Soviet Union and eastern Europe at the end of the twentieth century led many to claim that socialism was now dead and that there is no alternative to capitalism - a view strongly endorsed by Anthony Giddens. Yet others argued that that the Soviet Union and eastern Europe never reflected the ideas of Marx and Engels. Marx and Engels also argued that capitalism would conquer the whole earth for its markets, seemingly identifying the forces of globalisation in the modern world. The spread of the market has triggered new global, anti-capitalist and anti-globalisation movements, with some suggesting that the global market has made a new global proletariat, largely based in the global South, which will be the agent of change from capitalism to socialism.

Answer 153

Revolutionary socialism Evolutionary or reformist socialism

Answer 154

Argued socialism would come from a revolution (duh) > thought the few would never surrender their wealth > the workers must be prepared to use force to defeat a violent counter revolution by the few Liberal democracy will be replaced by the dictatorship of the proletariat which is democracy of the masses > they will abolish private ownership of the means of production and replace it with common ownership This will lead to abolition of classes which leads to communism and the withering away of the state

Answer 155

Believed there was a parliamentary road to socialism so democratic politics rather than class struggle could induce change Democratic socialists like Beatrice well believed in the inevitability of gradualism where a political democracy will naturally lead to the common ownership of the means of production Universal suffrage enables the working class whose lives are miserable under capitalism to vote together in their class interests for socialists parties > this will allow socialism to be achieved by working with the existing state through education and gradual piecemeal reforms In the end socialism would come about due to all classes recognising its ethical superiority so a wrong class revolution is not needed or desirable

Answer 156

Socialism delivered by the ballot box and legal piecemeal reforms

Answer 157

Those who believe that socialism should be pursued by democratic means where the electorate is persuaded of the moral superiority of socialism in a state with repeatable institutions

Answer 158

Rosa Luxembourgs She argued that socialism cannot be delivered by working with the state as it is controlled by and represents the interests of the ruling class. The parliamentary road is not a different path to the same end, if involves surrendering to capitalism

Answer 159

A Polish socialist who developed the Marxist view of revolution and who was a key critic of reformist

Answer 160

The mass strike, the political party and the trade unions (1906) built on the Marxist view that the emancipation of the working class can only be achieved by the working class, arguing the mass trike is the strategy for revolution

Answer 161

‘A historical phenomenon which at a given moment results from social conditions with historical inevitability’ > when the antagonism between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat is at its greatest, the mass strike will appear to be spontaneous and overthrow the very conditions that made it possible

Answer 162

Bring the proletariat together as a mass, giving them a sense of their common interest and their power, overcoming the atomisation of workers under capitalism Educate the workers in organisations so that they can develop an ability to organise society themselves in the interests of many Being the proletariat together so that they can undermine and overthrow the state

Answer 163

Attacked the idea that socialism could be achieved by reform, arguing that those who argued for legislative reform ‘do not a choose a more tranquil calmer and slow road to the same goal but a different goal’

Answer 164

The state represents and is ruled by the working class Reformism will not mean socialism but accommodating capitalism Socialists value reforms not only for their benefits to workers but because the process of fighting for reform generated the organisation and strength to take on capitalism as a whole If abandons the historical materialism of Scientific socialism

Answer 165

A key thinker in reformist socialism who underpinned democratic socialism > she was instrumental in establishing the Fabian society and aligning it with the Labour Party as well as drafting cause IV of the Labour constitution of 1918 which focused on the common ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange

Answer 166

Crippling poverty and demeaning inequality are the by products of the social structures of capitalism not individual actions or failings > therefore poverty cannot be tackled through paternalism or charity > it can only be tackled by moving from capitalism to socialism

Answer 167

A corrupting force for human nature making humans unnaturally selfish and greedy

Answer 168

A national minimum of civilised life

Answer 169

The nationalisation programme, the health service and the welfare state of the Attlee government of 1945-51 can be seen as rooted in webbs ideas of the national minimum standard of civilised life

Answer 170

the idea that socialism would be achieved through slow, methodical reforms rather than revolution. Rejected the Marxist idea that the class struggle would bring about socialism through revolution In its place Webb argued that socialism was still inevitable but it would be achieved gradually through piecemeal, social and political reform by the state

Answer 171

The process is inevitable as in the age of universal suffrage, the working classes would realise they were being exploited under capitalism and would vote for socialist parties > socialist governments would gradually reform capitalism and take the means of production into public ownership > this reform would create a socialist society and shape human nature to be more cooperative, altruistic and fraternal > as the benefits of socialism become clear to all, because it’s ethically superior to capitalism the transformation will become permanent

Answer 172

Marxism is entirely opposed to capitalism and believes it can only lead to misery and exploitation > furthered by its tendency to worsen economic crisis and creating unemployment Marx, Engels and Luxembourg argued private property and the market had to be completely abolished and replaced by common ownership and cooperation > this would create a classless society where the state would wither away making a true democracy where humans would be free to develop in their fraternal and cooperative nature

Answer 173

Argued capitalism is increasingly efficient at producing economic growth and raising living standards > capitalism should be harnessed and humanised in order to achieve socialist ends > Anthony crosland

Answer 174

The issue of ownership > social democrats believe that progressive taxation, high levels of spending on public services and universal welfare could be used to distribute rewards and privilege fairly to minimise resentment between classes > this would create equal opportunities for all and secure justice between individuals > they do not see the issue of ownership as being important

Answer 175

They argue that increased tax revenues produced by the free market could be invested in infrastructure and public services, especially education, to create equality of opportunity

Answer 176

Those who believe in philosophical and practical attempts to blend democracy, capitalism and social justice. Social democracy is a form of revisionist socialism as it looks to depart from earlier socialist theorists and present a different interpretation. Social justice is fairness in the distribution of assets, Wealth and advantages within society involving a commitment to equality through redistribution via the state. > eg via progressive taxation on the wealthy and universal welfare

Answer 177

A reinterpretation of socialism to take account of changes in the world in order to update it. It is associated with harmonising rather than abolishing capitalism

Answer 178

The use of tax and spend policies to create full employment and continuous economic growth

Answer 179

The reforms of the Labour government under clement Attlee (45-51) using nationalisation, the welfare state and Keynesian economics

Answer 180

The theory of the working class being miserable and deepening economic crisis was disproved under the Attlee government because of growing economic output and higher living standards

Answer 181

Increased power of government and trade unions

Answer 182

Managers not business owners were not running industry so it was better to focus on the control or regulation of capitalism rather than public ownership > managers became a new class in society which weakened Marx’s idea of two classes that inherently compete

Answer 183

Public ownership of key industries and services but other industries under private ownership had been economically successful and reduced inequality

Answer 184

Social justice > this involved improving welfare and social equality through progressive taxation and redistribution of wealth to rectify inequalities produced by the market Social equality > tackling poverty and reducing inequality was also important as in social democracy it did not go as far as complete equality as ‘extra responsibility and exceptional talent deserve a differential reward’ according to crosland

Answer 185

Social democracy would weaken the existing deep seated class stratification with its inconsistent feelings of envy and inferiority and its barriers to uninhibited mingling between the classes

Answer 186

Crosland > wrote the future of socialism (1956) post war which aimed to bring social democracy up to date for its time > crosland generally argued that socialism had ‘no precise descriptive meaning’ and was really a set of values, not a fixed programme, he argued that social equality was the fundamental aim, not ownership of the means of production

Answer 187

He argued that ‘Marx has little to offer to the contemporary socialist’ and that the Marxist idea of imminent capitalist collapse had been disproved by events

Answer 188

1918-77 (he died in 77 so that’s prolly as done as he’ll ever be)

Answer 189

Economic growth and stated that ‘I no longer regard questions of growth and efficiency as being, on a long view, of primary importance to socialism’

Answer 190

Became more managerial and technocratic, less focused on profit and more willing to accept systems of regulation imposed by states

Answer 191

To control the economy to keep delivering growth and to ensure full employment without the need for more public ownership. Crosland therefore rejected nationalisation as a main aim of the Labour Party

Answer 192

By progressive taxation and redistribution of wealth via the welfare state and public services to promote social equality and tackle poverty > capitalism with a human face

Answer 193

The end of segregation and section in schools to provide comprehensive education for all > this would break down the barriers between classes, minimising class distinctions and providing all pupils with equality of opportunity

Answer 194

Quality of life issues and breaking down class barriers so that everyone could be free to achieve happiness and flourishing lives

Answer 195

His views were built on the ideas of continuous growth and higher living standards > this was accompanied by an effective state that cares for people, strong trade unions and socially conscious managers During the 70s the UK suffered from stagflation (high inflation and stagnant economic growth) and the rise of Thatcherism in the 80s

Answer 196

The thinking of Anthony goddess and the practices of the Labour Party under Tony Blair

Answer 197

That the managed capitalism of Keynesian economics is dead and has been replaced by the free market of neo liberalism > it aims to balance this with social democracies commitment to community and equality of opportunity

Answer 198

Socialist ideas of co operative human nature and willingness to accept free market economics but not the ideas of an atomistic society > this proposes the widest possible freedoms but tied to responsibilities to the wider community

Answer 199

The emphasis on community and the ties that bind everyone together > the focus is on consensus and social harmony not class conflict

Answer 200

The emphasis on social equality, instead focusing on social justice by providing equality of opportunity > people are given access to education and welfare is targeted at those who are socially excluded so they can access to the opportunities in society

Answer 201

The redistribution of possibilities with tax and benefit changes targeted at helping the poorest > although it is recognised that a meritocratic society may be unequal in terms of levels of outcome

Answer 202

The role of the state is not social engineering through redistribution in the way that crosland proposed > the social investment state should concentrate on investing in economic infrastructure and Human Resources, to make the state more competitive in the global market

Answer 203

As it creates a skilled and knowledgeable workforce that can compete in the modern globalised economy, driving economic growth and allowing the individual to realise their full potential

Answer 204

It provides the tax base to enable social investment in areas like education, transport infrastructure and technology

Answer 205

The rejection of traditional conception of socialism and his favouring of the third way in politics

Answer 206

Beyond left and right 1994

Answer 207

A response to the changing world where globalisation has transformed modern economies and the role of government; rather than the big state of social democracy, there should be an intelligent, social investment state This would reduce the ability of the government to manage the economy and would leave it with two main roles: To make the workforce more competitive by building their skills and knowledge through education and training To build the necessary infrastructure to maximise trade and investment

Answer 208

For a combination of right wing economics and left wing social policy > he argued this more generally but he honed in on it in his book In this book he argued that socialism had to accept that Neo liberalism was here to say and was crucial as it promoted growth, entrepreneurship, enterprise and wealth creation

Answer 209

Empowered the individual economically, bringing greater freedom but had also undermined traditional communities. Neo liberalism needs to be married to the principles of community and equality of opportunity from social democracy

Answer 210

For it > believed it delivered community via regional assemblies and directly elected mayors who represent different groups > it is also evident in the drive for social inclusion and the idea of rights coming with responsibilities

Answer 211

Giddens > recognised that it is denied to many and that this can be corrected by targeted efficient public spending > with this targeted spending comes individual responsibility: local schools will be improved but parents have a responsibility to make sure their child attends and will face consequences if they don’t

Answer 212

Work > meant work needed to be made worthwhile as it will give people a sense of dignity and worth > the state has the responsibility to train and educate workers but individuals have a responsibility to take those jobs

Answer 213

The policies of Tony Blair > cutting class sizes, bringing down NHS waiting lists, introducing the minimum wage, devolution, no rises in income tax, getting 250,000 under 25 year olds off benefits and into work and reforming the welfare system to make work pay

Answer 214

The third way recognises the virtues of markets but does not worship them. The third way should be concerned with social justice - to improve the position of the poor, especially children in poverty, and to ensure large scale investment in public services for create a redistribution of possibilities

Answer 215

Believed that communism was both the ideal society and inevitable. The revolutions of 1848 across Europe provided the inspiration for Marx and Engels to develop their theory of both how and why communism must come about

Answer 216

Luxembourg was a military activist and one of the original thinkers in the history of Marxism. She was an uncompromising critic of the parliamentary road to socialism at the turn of the 19th century. She applauded the success of the Russian revolution in 1917 but warned that a revolution led by a party not guided by the masses would run the risk of crushing the freedoms promised by socialism

Answer 217

Studies in the east end of London deceased to her the misery of the general population created by land lords and capitalists at the end of the 19th century. Without some socialism, Webb believed a national minimum of civilised life could not be scribed and she argued for an evolutionary rather than revolutionary road to socialism

Answer 218

Published his key work the future of socialism to review the aims of socialism in light of economic ionic and societal changes since Marx and Engels were writing and in particular the transformations to English society by the Attlee government 45-51

Answer 219

Giddens work during the 1990s looked to reform social democracy in light of the perceived failure of Keynesian economics, the collapse of Eastern European communism, the rise of globalisation and the disappearance of the traditional working class

Answer 220

Humans are social beings, naturally fraternal, cooperative and communal and seek solidarity rather than competition Human nature is flexible, multifaceted, and shaped by social circumstances Humans change as their circumstances change but they also create new and different social relations and adapt to them > so if humans can create capitalism they can create socialism Socialism is generally optimistic about what human nature can become if given the right social relations

Answer 221

Marx and Engels argued human nature is not fixed > both believed people needed to labour to have their needs satisfied > capitalism turned this labour into forced labour to create profit and not to satisfy needs, alienating the worker and preventing them from living satisfying lives, engaging in fulfilling work and relating to others > believed that by bringing the means of production into common ownership, labour will be socialised, creating the right social conditions to foster cooperation, fraternity and solidarity Luxembourg on the other hand was optimistic about human nature arguing that the intellectual and cultural growth of the proletariat would be achieved through the mass strike and the struggle against capitalism Gradualist thinkers like Webb believed that poverty and inequality were a ‘corrupting force’ that fostered greed and selfishness > the gradual reform of the state to promote common ownership, could guide human nature back to its co operative essence Revisionist thinkers like Cristian’s saw inequality and class distinctions as creating feelings of envy, inferiority and resentment. > social equality would create gender cooperation and community by reducing the effects of class distinctions For giddens, human nature should be seen positively with the free market empowering the individual economically and giving them freedom but he also reinforced the importance of community and having a sense of responsibility towards others

Answer 222

The uniting of all humanity in bonds of affection on the basis of common humanity

Answer 223

socialism is impossible to achieve as humans are naturally selfish, greedy and competitive. This is based on the view that human nature has fixed traits and is not flexible. In the exam, it is worth considering whether this criticism of socialism's view of human nature undermines its prescriptions for the state, society and the economy. Or is it the case that capitalism breeds selfishness even if you want to put others first - the worker who wants to do the best for their family must constantly struggle against others for a better job or higher pay?

Answer 224

Socialists tend to favour the state as the key tool to drive political, economic and social change The right kind of state can improve society by promoting equality, co operation and community. However, there is a clear disagreement about what is the right kind of state

Answer 225

Marx and Engels claim the states a committee for the ruling classes > it will promote and defend the existing economic relations and ideology which benefit the ruling classes > as such the state can not be captured or reformed it just he overthrown and replaced by a dictatorship of the proletariat Once the dictatorship of the proletariat has fought off the rulings classes and taken the means of production into common ownership, class divides will disappear and the state will wither away According to Luxembourg, the mass strike and the struggle for economic reforms such as the 8 hour working day will bring workers into direct conflict with the ideological, political and economic power of the state, creating a class consciousness She argued the state and the economic powers that the state protects must be overthrown from below by the working class and not by a minority in the name of the working class The revolution must replace the Bourgeoisie democracy with unlimited democracy based on the most active unlimited participation of the mass of the people

Answer 226

According to Webb the states could be harnessed by socialism through parliamentary democracy and the ethical superiority of its ideas The state could gradually and peacefully be expanded to bring the economy into common ownership and subject it to planning controls The state could then steer society towards socialism

Answer 227

Social democracy sees the state playing a key role in managing the economy using Keynesian economics to control growth and maintain full employment According to cross and progressive taxation and redistributive welfare could be used to promote social equality and equality of opportunity

Answer 228

According to goddess the modern state needs to be an intelligent state and a social investment state reforming to work better through devolving power, investing in infrastructure and education to promote equality of opportunity Social exclusion should be tackled through targeted public spending to promote work as the route out of poverty

Answer 229

Socialists see human nature and individuals as the product of the society in which they live. In particular the nature of economic relations and the distribution of wealth have a key impact on society and human nature Socialists have traditionally focused on how class and inequality play a significant role in shaping an individuals prospects Society needs to be reconfigured in line with a concept of justice to provide greater equality although there is considerable debate as to what type of equality

Answer 230

Marx and Engels saw society as constructed by relations to the means of production and distribution of wealth, creating clear class divisions between the few and the many > the concept of equality under capitalism is meaningless Society is dominated by the ideas of the ruling class > racism, sexism and patriotism > used to divide the working class among themselves This muck of ages must be overthrown to create a class society based not on the principle of ‘to each according to what he does’ but rather ‘from each according to his ability to each according to his needs’ Luxembourg saw capitalist society as a society of exploitation that could not be reformed by piecemeal changes to improve conditions. Such reforms are merely a renegotiation of the terms of exploitation and will be overturned quickly when those in power regroup She argued that by participating in strikes, workers would be able to break their ties to the dominant ideas of society and develop the ability to organise society for themselves

Answer 231

Webb studied poverty in Lancashire and the east end of London concluding that it could not be accounted for by individual behaviour or moral weakness, or tackled by private charity > poverty was structural so society needed a structural response to tackle it She argued that society should focus on a national minimum > a minimum level of wages and quality of life which no one should be allowed to fall below

Answer 232

Crosland argued that society should focus on minimising inequality and class divides, not eradicating them as Marx and Engels had argued > this could be argued by progressive taxation, the redistribution of wealth, universal welfare and comprehensive education

Answer 233

Giddens focused on the importance of community to balance out the negative effects of free market capitalism Society should be ordered around the values of community, focusing on individual responsibility to others, social cohesion and social inclusion, rather than on class divides and conflicts

Answer 234

Socialisms focus on class and equality means that socialists agree that the economy must work in the interests of all in society Socialists agree that private property and capitalism are problematic but disagree over wether private property and capitalism are at all compatible with capitalism

Answer 235

In 1918, Luxembourg wrote a pamphlet on the Russian revolution which supported it but criticised its tactics > she argued that only unlimited democracy could ensure the dictatorship of the proletariat was the rule of the working class

Answer 236

The third way stands alone in its rejection of a class based analysis of society

Answer 237

Capitalism and private property are ‘naked, shameless, direct and brutal exploitation’ and form the conciousness of the working class who become the grave diggers of capitalism The revolution will replace capitalism with the common ownership of the means of production, making conflict, poverty and oppression things of the past Communism will abolish private property, alienation and wage slavery, leading to worker emancipation so all are free

Answer 238

Webb believed that the parliamentary road to socialism would permeate the state with the ideas of socialism, leading to the state gradually taking the economy into common ownership The state could ensure that there was a national minimum for all in relation to wages and quality of life

Answer 239

Crosland felt that there was no need for further public ownership, following the nationalisations carried out by the Attlee government > the state should adopt a Keynesian approach to generate full employment and sufficient growth to create the tax base necessary to deliver greater social equality

Answer 240

Giddens valued the dynamism and entrepreneurship generated by a free market, based on deregulation, private not public ownership and low taxes > the taxes generated could be spent on infrastructure, education and social inclusion to create better equality of opportunity

Answer 241

Revolution is inevitable and vital > involves overthrow of existing state, society and economy > probably involve the use of force from the working class Liberal democracy is a swindle used by the ruling class to stop workers developing class conciousness > the ruling class also uses its ideological dominance to promote patriotism and prejudices like sexism to divide workers among themselves The state and society are an expression of class relations, enforcing the ideas of the ruling class and so must be overthrown Capitalism and private property will be overthrow and replaced by common ownership Equality means the end of inequality in terms of status, wealth and income. Society is ordered by the principle ‘from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs’. This will create a true democracy and the state will wither away as society will be classless Class is a key analytical tool for understanding society and the final objective is a classless society

Answer 242

Socialism can be delivered via the ballot box and piecemeal legal reforms > this process takes place gradually and peacefully within democracy With universal suffrage, socialist parties will be able to campaign and convince workers of the benefits of socialism > when voted into power the gradual, peaceful change to socialism will convince everyone of its ethical superiority The state can be used to deliver reform, improving society Capitalism and private property are compatible with socialism but need to be harnessed for socialist ends > social democracy supports the mixed economy, Keynesian economics and redistributive welfare > the third way supports the free market of neo liberalism blended with a sense of community and social justice Social democracy emphasises relative social equality which involves tackling poverty and limiting inequality > without some level of social equality, equality of opportunity is not possible > the third way places its emphasis on equality of opportunity but this is underpinned by targeted welfare and public spending to generate social inclusion Social democracy still views class as important and wishes to minimise class divisions within society The third way dismissed the emphasis on class, focusing more on community and social inclusion