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BIO 201 > U6 Terms > Flashcards

U6 Terms Flashcards

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1
Q

Differences in early Earth compared to modern Earth: (5)

A

1) No plants or animals
2) Tons of volcanic activity
3) Intense UV rays
4) Constant debris raining down
5) No free O2 in the atmosphere or oceans

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2
Q

First life forms on Earth were…

A

Unicellular, anaerobic

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3
Q

Great Oxidation Event

A

O2 began accumulating in the atmosphere and the SURFACE of the ocean for the first time

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4
Q

Impacts of the great oxidation event

A

Created the conditions for the evolution of AEROBIC respiration

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5
Q

Oxygenic photosynthesis first arose in…

A

cyanobacteria

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6
Q

Stromatolites

A

Fossilized microbes

–> Layered sedimentary formations created by several species of ancient microbes layered upon one another

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7
Q

Although oxygenic photosynthesis first arose in cyanobacteria, they DID NOT…

A

Cyanobacteria did not INVENT photosynthesis

–> It evolved many many more years prior

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8
Q

First development of photosynthesis was…

A

ANOXYGENIC –> Did not produce oxygen

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9
Q

What organisms did/still do anoxygenic photosynthesis?

A

Green and purple sulfur bacteria

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10
Q

Anoxygenic Photosynthesis Products

A

1) Large High Energy Molecules (NOT GLUCOSE) –> Typically formaldehyde

2) Elemental Sulfur (in many cases)

3) H2O

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11
Q

Oxygenic Photosynthesis Products

A

1) Large, high energy molecules (GLUCOSE)

2) O2

3) H2O

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12
Q

On early Earth, oxygen was actually…

A

TOXIC to most life forms

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13
Q

Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved due to…

A

Random mutations in certain genes that turned out to be beneficial to the organism doing the photosynthesizing

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14
Q

Main benefit of oxygenic photosynthesis

A

A new carbon source: Glucose

–> Provided more energy than inorganic carbon sources like formaldehyde

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15
Q

Development of oxygenic photosynthesis led to 3 main patterns of change on Earth:

A

1) Initial oxygenation of the biosphere
2) Production of ORGANIC carbons (sugars)
3) Increased nutrient availability to other organisms

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16
Q

How did oxygenic photosynthesis increase nutrient availability to other organisms?

A

An increase in oxygen conc. led to increase in OXIDATION which produced SULFURIC ACID

–> Sulfuric acid broke down rocks causing the leaching of minerals necessary for life into rivers and oceans

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17
Q

Aerobic Respiration

A

A much more efficient form of respiration due to higher ATP output

–> Requires oxygen input

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18
Q

Aerobic respiration advantage

A

Provided greater energy to microbes that had evolved to do aerobic respiration

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19
Q

Aerobic cellular respiration allowed for the development of…

A

Eukaryotes

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20
Q

Nitrogen Fixation

A

A process invented and performed by bacteria that converts unusable nitrogen into a form useable by living organisms

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21
Q

Bacteria in plant roots role in nitrogen fixation

A

The bacteria take in atmospheric nitrogen and converts it to ammonium (NH4+) which can be used by plants

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22
Q

What prevented biological nitrogen fixation from becoming widespread before oxygen became abundant?

A

–> Nitrogen fixation requires ANOXIC conditions so it wasn’t the lack of oxygen that prevented it

–> Nitrogen fixation requires certain minerals that were inaccessible on early Earth

–> Oxygenation cause increased oxidation which released these minerals from rocks allowing for them to be utilized in nitrogen fixation

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23
Q

How did microbes change the Earth? (3 ways)

A

1) Development of oxygenic photosynthesis

2) Development of aerobic cellular respiration

3) Increased nitrogen availability (needed for life)

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24
Q

3 methods of nitrogen fixation:

A

1) Atmospheric fixation
2) Biological fixation
3) Industrial fixation (“Haber-Bosch” method)

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25
Q

Atmospheric Nitrogen Fixation

A

1) Lightning breaks N2 bonds

2) Free N atoms are able to then combine with other atmospheric atoms

–> Most commonly forming NO3-

3) Rain brings this NO3- to Earth where it undergoes the nitrogen cycle

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26
Q

Biological Fixation

A

Accounts for most of nitrogen fixation (90%)

–> Produced by microorganisms on land and in the sea

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27
Q

Industrial Fixation

A

Haber-Bosch Process

–> Combine nitrogen and hydrogen over an iron catalyst to make ammonia: NH4+

–> NH4+ then gets oxidized to form NO3- and NO2- which are used to fertilize crops

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28
Q

Fertilizers

A

Contain synthetically made nitrites and nitrates to help with plant growth

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29
Q

Overuse of fertilizers caused:

A

Excess nitrogen to enter marine and aquatic environments through RUN OFF

–> Led to harmful algal blooms

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30
Q

Effects of algal blooms

A

“Choke” the water: Uses up all the free oxygen in the water

–> Creates a dead zone

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31
Q

Dead Zone

A

Areas with hypoxia: reduced levels of oxygen in the water that causes plants and animals to die

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32
Q

Eutrophication

A

Excessive richness of nutrients in a lake of other body of water

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33
Q

Dead zones lead to…

A

Many decaying organisms which causes organic buildup on the floors of water environments

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34
Q

Excessive organic buildup on aquatic/sea floors causes…

A

Whatever little oxygen is left to NOT BE ABLE TO REACH LOWER SEDIMENT LEVELS

–> Causes denitrifying bacteria to thrive

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35
Q

Denitrifying Bacteria

A

Convert nitrates and nitrites into nitrogen gas (N2) and nitrous oxide (N2O)

–> Do NOT need O2 (anoxic conditions)

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36
Q

When denitrifying bacteria thrive too much…

A

Lots of N2O gas is produced which leads to greater greenhouse effect and contributes to climate change

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37
Q

Nitrifying Bacteria

A

Converts ammonia into nitrates and nitrites

–>Requires oxygen!

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38
Q

Decomposition of human waste produces:

A

NH4+

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39
Q

NH4+ from human waste gets into water ways by (3)

A

1) Combined sewage overflows
2) Incomplete sewage treatment
3) Leaching from septic tank systems

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40
Q

Use of fertilizers has increased the production of _________ in soils

A

N2O

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41
Q

Which is more potent green house gas? CO2 or N2O

A

N2O

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42
Q

Land plants evolved from

A

Aquatic algae

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43
Q

What character adaptations were needed for the evolution of algae to land plants?

A

1) Structures preventing desiccation and protection from UV
2) Reproduction without water
3) Structural support on land
4) Moving materials against gravity (being able to get substances to different areas of a plant)

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44
Q

2 key character adaptations needed for the evolution of algae to moss:

A

1) Development of the cuticle

2) Development of the stoma

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45
Q

Cuticle

A

A “skin” layer

–> Prevents water loss and desiccation while also helping with UV protection

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46
Q

What was a drawback to the cuticle and what development fixed the problem?

A

Cuticle didn’t allow for gas exchange

–> Development of the stoma allowed for gas exchange through the cuticle

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47
Q

Stoma

A

A hole that can open and close in the cuticle which allows for gas exchange

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48
Q

What adaptation led to the development of larger plants?

A

Vascular Tissue/System

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49
Q

Vascular Tissue

A

Allows for movement of liquids against gravity and across plant tissues

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50
Q

Vascular Tissue is made of:

A

2 cell types:

1) Xylem
2) Phloem

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51
Q

Xylem

A

Transports water (ONE WAY system; roots to leaves)

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52
Q

Phloem

A

Transports sugars (TWO way, TWO tube system)

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53
Q

Impacts of plant size on the atmospheric content

A

Greater plant size = >carbon sequestering = > CO2 removed and > O2 produced

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54
Q

GAS HAS MASS: Air is just less _____________ but this does not mean that it does not have ___________

A

1) Air is less dense

2) But this does not mean that it doesn’t have mass

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55
Q

Why did increase in atmospheric oxygen lead to the development of massive insects?

A

Because insects cannot control breathing rate –> It occurs through diffusion SO

> O2 = > respiration (that they can’t control == > growth

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56
Q

Mosses, Ferns, and relatives require ____________ for reproduction

A

WATER –> They have swimming sperm

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57
Q

How did swimming sperm hinder movement to land?

A

Limited the when and the where of reproduction

–> Limited dispersal to new habitats (stuck to the water)

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58
Q

Mosses evolved ____________ which aided a bit in dispersal by __________ but still…

A

1) SPORES

–> Aided in dispersal by WIND

BUT, wind still limited dispersal as it could only take the spores so far

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59
Q

Spore

A

Haploid reproductive unit

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60
Q

What reproductive elements did gymnosperms and angiosperms have?

A

1) POLLEN
2) SEEDS

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61
Q

Pollen

A

Male gametophyte of plants

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62
Q

Pollination

A

Movement of pollen to plant female structure = fertilization

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63
Q

Gymnosperms

A

WIND moves pollen

–> Have cones

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64
Q

Angiosperms

A

Flowering plants –> Flowers attract animals

–> ANIMALS move the pollen

–> Have fruit

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65
Q

Advantage of angiosperms

A

Animals moving the pollen allowed for greater dispersal over a wider range

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66
Q

Seeds

A

Baby plants/embryos inside a protective sheath

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67
Q

Gymnosperms hold their seeds in

A

CONES

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68
Q

Angiosperms hold their seeds in

A

FRUIT

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69
Q

Fruit

A

Structure derived from flowers that holds seeds

–> Provides an advantage for dispersal as fruit attracts consumption by animals

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70
Q

Synapomorphy

A

Derived character state uniquely shared by a group of taxa

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71
Q

Photoautotrophs

A

1) Inorganic carbon as matter source

2) Sun as energy source

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72
Q

Photoheterotrophs

A

1) Organic carbon as matter source

2) Sun as energy source

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73
Q

Chemoautotrophs

A

1) Inorganic carbon as matter source

2) Bonds of inorganic and organic molecules (food)

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74
Q

Chemoheterotrophs

A

1) Organic carbon as matter source

2) Bonds of inorganic and organic molecules (food)

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75
Q

Food

A

Large, carbon rich molecules that are sources of energy and matter

76
Q

What is/is not food for an organisms depends on…

A

the organism’s ability to get BOTH energy and matter from the substance

77
Q

For some organisms, energy in their food does NOT trace back to the sun but instead:

A

Hydrothermal Vents

78
Q

Which organisms get their energy from hydrothermal vents?

A

Chemoautotrophs get their energy from H2 gas pumping out of the hydrothermal vents

79
Q

What happens to indigestible and dead tissues? (3 processes)

A

1) Decomposition
2) Combustion
3) Fossilization

80
Q

Decomposition

A

Dead/Indigestible things undergo chemical reactions that create new molecules (Broken down by other organisms)

81
Q

Decomposers

A

Organisms that rearrange molecules of dead tissue to create new molecules that they can use for energy, tissue building, and storage

–> Invertebrates, bacteria, and fungi

82
Q

Fungi are more similar to _________ than ___________

A

More similar to animals than plants

83
Q

Absorptive Heterotrophy

A

Feeding more of fungi

–> Secrete digestive enzymes OUTSIDE of body and then ABSORB the digestion products into their cells

84
Q

Saprobes

A

Organisms that absorb nutrients from DEAD organic molecules (what fungi are)

85
Q

Fungi disperse via

A

Haploid spores

86
Q

Fruiting

A

Building reproductive structures that will produce more spores

87
Q

Fungi are the primary decomposers of (3 molecules)

A

1) Cellulose
2) Lignin
3) Keratin

88
Q

Without fungus, the ____________ would fail

A

Carbon cycle

89
Q

What is the body of a fungus called

A

Mycelium

90
Q

Mycelium

A

Root like structure of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching tubular filaments (hyphae)

91
Q

Hyphae

A

Tubular filaments that make up mycelium

92
Q

Septate Hyphae

A

Hyphae with incomplete cells walls (septa)

93
Q

Purpose of septa

A

Separates cells while still allowing for the passage of materials between them

94
Q

Hyphae cell walls are made of

A

Chitin

95
Q

Why do hyphae need septa?

A

Because chitin is not permeable (need some way to connect cells)

96
Q

Coencytic Hyphae

A

Hyphae without septa

97
Q

Septa

A

Incomplete cell walls

98
Q

Rhizoids

A

Modified hyphae for anchoring

99
Q

Fruiting Body

A

Structure that releases spores (only around for short period of time)

Ex: Mushroom

100
Q

Fungi impacts on the biosphere

A

Made soils suitable for first land plants

101
Q

How did fungi prepare the land for the first land plants

A

Released digestive enzymes that could break down rock AND organic substances which generated nutrient rich soils

102
Q

Protaxities

A

That scary tall as hell fungus that is one of the more important ancient fungi

–> may have provided shelter to arthropods

103
Q

Combustion

A

AKA Burning

–> Process that breaks down dead tissues and releases energy in the form of heat while also releasing CO2

104
Q

Most of the mass of something that is combusted goes where

A

Into the air as CO2

105
Q

Fossilization

A

Alternative for dead/indigestible tissues: Don’t get broken down

–> Under the right pressure and heat, ancient plants become fossilized into COAL

106
Q

Coal

A

Dead matter that has not rotted or burned, but has been compressed under great amounts of pressure

107
Q

Fossilized tissues are NOT…

A

Easily broken down

108
Q

Coal is made up of ____________________ so when we burn it we are ____________________

A

1) Ancient carbon

2) Releasing a lot of carbon into the environment that hasn’t been around for a very long time

–> For this reason, burning coal is more like ADDING carbon to the environment rather than cycling it

109
Q

Ancestral eukaryotes reproduced via

A

Mitosis only

110
Q

2 methods of reproduction:

(Characterize them)

A

1) Asexual –> Produces identical offspring
–> Mitosis and fission

2) Sexual –> Produces unique offspring
–> Involves meiosis and mating

111
Q

Asexual reproduction benefits

A

1) Faster reproduction
2) Easier
3) Takes fewer resources
4) Duplicates SUCCESSFUL individuals

112
Q

Asexual reproduction disadvantages

A

Lack of variation

1) Changes to environment/unpredictable environment = death

2) Predators and parasites specialize in most common prey type = (all are the same so…) death

3) Infectious disease = death

113
Q

Sexual selection benefits

A

1) Generates variable offspring + novel variants
–> Ensures some would survive in changing environments or would be resistant to a pathogen, able to escape predator, etc.

2) Recombination helps to generate chromosomes without harmful alleles

3) Recombination helps to generate chromosomes with beneficial alleles

114
Q

Sexual selection disadvantages

A

1) Slower reproduction (only females produce offspring)

2) Finding mates requires greater energy and resources

3) Finding mates can be risky (increased vulnerability to predators and STDs)

4) Many new variants may not survive as well as the parents did
–> Recombination can also break up favorable allele combos

115
Q

What is the difference in rate between sexual and asexual reproduction?

A

Sexual reproduction rate = 50% the rate of asexual reproduction

–> Because only females can produce the offspring

116
Q

Sporophyte

A

A diploid multicellular phase in which cells undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores

117
Q

What occurs to spores?

A

Undergo mitosis to produce the gametophyte

118
Q

Gametophyte

A

A haploid multicellular stage in which gametes produced from this stage (by mitosis) undergo fertilization

119
Q

Fertilization of the gametes from the gametophyte produces…

A

An embryo (zygote) which undergoes mitosis to turn into a sporophyte (multicellular diploid state)

120
Q

Double Fertilization

A

Occurs only in angiosperms:

Two fertilization events take place

1) 1 sperm combines with an egg = zygote

2) 1 sperm combines with 2 haploid nuclei from female gametophyte = ENDOSPERM

121
Q

A zygote has n =

A

n = 2 (diploid)

122
Q

Endosperm

A

Large mass of cells that stores nutritious molecules for the zygote as it develops

–> The zygote’s food

123
Q

Endosperm has n =

A

3 (triploid)

124
Q

Cnidarians

A

A group of marine invertebrates which includes corals, jellyfish, and anemones

125
Q

2 mature forms of cnidarians

A

1) Polyp
2) Medusa

126
Q

Corals only have one mature form:

A

Polyp

127
Q

Jellyfish only have one mature form:

A

Medusa

128
Q

Hydrozoans

A

Organisms with both polyp and medusa forms

129
Q

Polyp

A

Tube shaped and attached to a surface

130
Q

Medusa

A

Bell shaped and free moving

131
Q

Coral sperm and eggs combine to form (fertilize)

A

Planula (larvae)

132
Q

What happens once planula are formed?

A

They drift in the water until they settle on a hard surface in which they begin developing into a polyp

133
Q

Mature polyps undergo…

A

Budding (asexual reproduction)

134
Q

Coral growth methods:

A

1) Budding
2) Fragmentation

135
Q

Fragmentation

A

1) Fragment of coral breaks off
2) Drifts away and then settles somewhere
3) Undergoes asexual reproduction
4) New colony forms

136
Q

Tetrapods

A

4 legged vertebrates

Includes: Mammals, reptiles, amphibians, birds

137
Q

What reproductive trait evolved in tetrapods?

A

Amniote Egg

138
Q

Amniote Egg

A

Egg that contains an aquatic environment INSIDE of it for the embryo that is then protected by an outer hard shell that allows for gas exchange

139
Q

Amnion

A

A fluid filled sac that cushions the embryo

140
Q

Yolk

A

Nutrient bearing portion of the egg whose primary function is to provide food to the developing embryo

141
Q

What did the amniote egg allow for?

A

1) Allowed for animals to lay eggs on land where there were less predators (increased survival and dispersal)

2) Opened access to new terrestrial habitats away from the water

142
Q

Pseudogenes

A

AKA “Dead genes”

–> Gene sequences that have been made inactive due to accumulated mutations

143
Q

Why don’t humans have yolks?

A

The genes for yolk proteins are still within our genome but they are knocked out (dead genes)

144
Q

Placenta

A

An organ that forms in the womb to provide nutrients and oxygen to the embryo

145
Q

What did the placenta develop from?

A

Viral proteins: Syncytin-1 and Syncytin-2

146
Q

What did syncytin-1 and syncytin-2 allow for?

A

The fusing of placental cells

147
Q

What did the placenta lead to?

A

Development of internal pregnancy

148
Q

Symbiosis

A

Species living very closely together

149
Q

ENDO-symbiosis

A

A species living WITHIN another species (within the body or even a cell)

150
Q

Organism Interactions:

Both are HARMED

A

Competition

151
Q

Organism Interactions:

Both are BENEFITTED

A

Mutualism

152
Q

Organism Interactions:

Ones benefits + one is harmed (4)

A

1) Predation
2) Herbivory
3) Parasitism
4) Infectious Disease

153
Q

Mutualism

A

A symbiosis or endosymbiosis in which BOTH specie benefit from the interaction

154
Q

Mutualism = symbiosis BUT…

A

Not all symbiosis events are mutualisms

155
Q

Endosymbiotic Theory

A

Mitochondria and chloroplast were once bacteria that became integrated into our cells

156
Q

Mitochondrial Endosymbiosis

A

Mitochondria are descendant from aerobic endosymbiotic bacteria living within cells of another species which became the ancestor of all eukaryotes

157
Q

Overtime, the mitochondrial genome… (2)

A

1) was greatly reduced
2) moved partly via insertion mutations into the host cell’s genome

158
Q

Chloroplast Endosymbiosis

A

In a descendant lineage of eukaryotes (with mitochondria) an endosymbiotic CYANOBACTERIA evolved into the original “primary” chloroplast

159
Q

Mitochondrial/chloroplast endosymbiosis led to

A

the evolution of eukaryotes

160
Q

Mycorrhizal Fungi

A

A group of fungi closely associated with the roots of plants that increase WATER and NUTRIENT uptake for the plants

–> They get sugars in return from the plants

161
Q

Many plants wont grow without…

A

Mycorrhizae

162
Q

Symbiont of coral

A

Zooxanthelle algae (a photosynthetic algae)

–> Lives inside the body of the coral and provides it with 95% of its food

163
Q

What does coral provide to the algae?

A

1) CO2
2) Protection (place to live)
3) Nutrients from the coral waste

164
Q

Human Gut Microbiome

A

Microbes aid in digestion and produce nutrients that we cannot ourselves

165
Q

Most of the genes in our body come from…

A

Bacteria (specifically due to the gut microbiome)

166
Q

Medical implications of fungus

A

Led to the discovery of the first antibiotic

–> Continues to be a source of new antibiotics in an age where bacterial resistance is rising

167
Q

Alfatoxins

A

Fungal toxin

–> 25% of the world’s food crops are affected by alfatoxins

168
Q

What does alfatoxin consumption lead to?

A

Connected to liver cancer –> 26,000 deaths per year due to it

169
Q

Yeast

A

Unicellular, free-living fungus

170
Q

Why is yeast evolution special?

A

Yeast evolved from multicellular organism (became simpler through evolution)

171
Q

Yeast are NOT

A

Monophyletic –> Because they have evolved multiple times from different ancestors

172
Q

Fungal Parasites in Plants: How do they invade?

A

Invade plant tissues through the stomata

173
Q

Haustoria

A

Projections of fungal parasites that press into plant cells and absorb nutrients (don’t penetrate the cells)

174
Q

Fungal parasites can cause detrimental __________________ ___________________ BUT they also are important for controlling ________________

A

1) Detrimental population decline
2) Control population size of abundant species

175
Q

How much of our food is reliant upon pollinators?

A

1 in every 3 bites of food

176
Q

Pollinators are threatened by (4)

A

1) Habitat loss
2) Climate change
3) Pesticide use
4) Diseases + pathogens

177
Q

Ecosystem Services:

A

1) Provisioning services (what they provide us with)
2) Regulating services (water filtration, etc.)
3) Cultural services

178
Q

Each kernel of corn is produced by a ________________ which means each kernel represents…

A

1) Produced by a separate fertilization event

2) Each kernel represents a genetically different individual

179
Q

Order of plant species evolution to land plants

A

Algae –> Mosses –> Ferns –> Gymnosperms/angiosperms

180
Q

Algae evolved into

A

Moss

181
Q

What trait did moss gain that caused it to evolve from algae?

A

1) Stomata
2) Cuticle

182
Q

Mosses evolved into

A

Ferns

183
Q

What trait did ferns gain that caused them to evolve from moss?

A

Vascular Tissue

184
Q

Ferns evolved into

A

Angiosperms and gymnosperms

185
Q

What traits did angio/gymo-sperms gain that caused them to evolve from ferns?

A

1) Seeds
2) Sex without water (POLLEN)

186
Q

Differences between angiosperms and gymnosperms

A

Angiosperms:
1) Seed dispersal through FRUIT
2) Pollination by ANIMALS
3) ENDOSPERM

Gymnosperms:
1) Seeds stored in CONES
2) Pollination by WIND

187
Q

2 synapomorphies of fungi:

A

1) Chitin in cell walls
2) Absorptive heterotrophy

BIO 201 (12 decks)

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