U3AOS2B - Memory Flashcards
1
Q
Why is memory an active process?
A
- Memory is an active process because it involves purposefully encoding, storing and retrieving information
2
Q
Compare human memory to a computer system
A
-
Similarity
- Information is coded, stored and recalled when needed
-
Differences
- Information in a human memory is not an exact replica of the event
- Information in a human memory can decay, in a computer it does not decay
3
Q
Outline the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store Model of Memory
ASM
A
-
Sensory Memory
- Function is to recieve all raw external information from 5 senses and enable perceptual continuity
- Capacity is vast, potentially unlimited
- Duration is 0.3-4 seconds
-
Short Term Memory (STM)
- Function is to recieve information from sensory memory and transfer it to and from LTM; maintain information in conscious awareness
- Capacity is 7+/- 2 pieces of information
- Duration is 18-20 seconds, up to 30 and can be longer if renewed
-
Long Term Memory (LTM)
- Function is for information storage for re-access and use at a later time
- Capacity is vast, potentially unlimited
- Duration is potentially permanent although some information may be lost or inaccessible over time
4
Q
How does sensory memory enable perceptual continuity?
ASM
A
- Each impression is stored long enough so that each slightly overlaps the first
5
Q
Describle the difference between sensory registers and sensory memory
ASM
A
- A sensory register is specific to respective senses, differing in encoding processes and storage duration
- Sensory memory is the general temporary memory store for all types of sensory memory
6
Q
Why is sensory memory not considered a perceptual system?
ASM
A
- Sensory memory stores raw information
- Differs to a perceptual system where information has to be interpreted in a meaningful way, which in sensory memory only occurs when information is attended to
7
Q
When is sensory memory subjected to an encoding process?
ASM
A
- Information is left raw unless attended to, which then would have to be converted to a form enabling neurological representation and storage as memories
8
Q
Outline 3 types of sensory memory
ASM
A
-
Iconic
- Visual memory
- Duration of 0.3 seconds
-
Echoic
- Auditory memory
- Duration of 3-4 seconds
-
Haptic
- Physical memory
- Duration of approximately less than two seconds
9
Q
Why is echoic memory longer than iconic memory?
ASM
A
- Need to have a duration of 3-4 seconds in order to hear words in a meaningful manner
- If it had the same duration as iconic memory, speech would be heard as short series of sounds instead of syllables blended together
10
Q
How is echoic memory adaptive?
ASM
A
- Being able to pay attention to significant echoic information (e.g an incoming car) allows individuals to survive
- This is because you ‘tune out’ other sounds
11
Q
How is sensory memory unique from all other types of memory?
A
- Contains exact replicas of sensory experience → Most accurate retention of past events
- STM and LTM only contain information that has been attended to from the sensory store ∴ Less accurate
12
Q
Why is short term memory referred to as a seat of conscious control?
ASM
A
- Information is actively manipulated so we can retain information for enough time to use it
13
Q
How can the duration of short term memory be increased?
ASM
A
-
Maintenence Rehearsal
- Involves repeating information vocally or subvocally
- Enhances functional duration of STM
-
Elaborative Rehearsal
- Giving meaning to new information or making associations to information already stored
- Best way to transfer to LTM
14
Q
How can information in short term memory be lost?
ASM
A
-
Decay
- Losing information due to lack of use, fading
-
Displacement
- When short term memory is ‘full’, information can be replaced
15
Q
Why is short term memory referred to as ‘working memory’?
ASM
A
- Used to emphasise the active processing and use of information
- It enables us to maintain information in conscious awareness whilst undertaking everyday tasks
16
Q
Compare and contrast short term memory to sensory memory
ASM
A
-
Similarities
- Brief duration
- Information lost if not attended to
-
Differences
- Short term memory has a limited capacity, sensory memory has a vast and potentially unlimited capacity
- Short term memory is all within conscious awareness, sensory memory is not
17
Q
What happens to long term memory when transferred from short term memory?
ASM
A
- Further encoding occurs according to meaning
- Information then becomes unconscious in order to prevent overstimulation/ being overwhelmed
18
Q
How is long term memory stored and what does this enable?
ASM
A
- Stored semantically; meaning of words are encoded instead of its sensory input
- Stored for a long time in an organised way, according to meaning and importance
- Allows efficient retrieval
19
Q
State 4 strengths of the Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
A
- Distinguishes between different stores
- Outlines that each store has a different capacity and duration
- Good understanding of structure and process of memory
- Findings from memory studies support the distinction between STM and LTM
20
Q
State 5 weaknesses of the Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
A
- Oversimplified; STM is more complex… has been proposed to have different components rather than being a singular store
- Ignores factors such as motivation and strategy, which can help in encoding STM to LTM
- Rehearsal is not necessary for transfer from STM to LTM
- Does not account for individual differences in memory processing, storage duration and capacity
- Does not explain the four types of LTM
21
Q
Outline and classify the 4 types of long term memory
NOT IN ASM
A
-
Explicit/Declarative (KNOWING THAT)
- Episodic - connects past to present and contains personal experiences involving aspects such as time and place acquired
- Semantic - general facts and knowledge
-
Implicit/Non-Declarative
- Procedural (KNOWING HOW) - memory involving motor skills
- Classically conditioned memory
Define both by saying declarative/non-declarative
22
Q
Describe the difference between episodic and autobiographical memories
A
- Episodic are things that are personally experienced
- Autobiographical memories contain components of episodic and semantic memory
23
Q
Distinguish between episodic and semantic memory
A
- Episodic is personal experience, when and what
- Semantic is facts and knowledge that can be acquired that can be acquired by another person but passed on to an individual autobiographically
- Mostly will not remember the moment it was acquired
- Does not include time and space
24
Q
When can an implicit memory be identified?
A
- When it does not require conscious or intentional retrieval
25
Q
Why are implicit memories called implicit?
A
- Existence of a specific memory can be ‘implied’ from response observed
26
Q
State two characteristics of a procedural memory
A
- Present even after not being done for a long time
- Becomes automated or better with practice
27
Q
How are each of the memory stores involved in the transfer and storage of information?
A
- Sensory information received and stored in its raw form
- Attention transfers this to STM
- STM stores a limited amount of information for up to 30 seconds in conscious awareness
- With further rehearsal (e.g elaborative) the information could be transferred into LTM
- LTM stores vast amounts of information for use at later times
- Information retrieved from LTM into STM for use
28
Q
State the locations of the 5 main brain areas in memory
A
- Hippocampus - Above both ears and deep inside the brain, shaped like a seahorse
- Amygdala - On top of hippocampus end (small bud)
- Neocortex - The general exterior of the main part of the brain (2.5 mm thick)
- Basal Ganglia - Deep within the brain, consisting of multiple sub structures
- Cerebellum - The minibrain, below the main part
🔗- Nervous System, Learning
29
Q
Briefly summarise how brain areas are involved in memory
A
- They have distinctive roles and specialisations
- They are not all equally involved
- Anatomically connected and interact with each other
30
Q
Describe the role of the hippocampus in memory
A
- Formation and encoding of new explicit memories
- Helps to ensure they are neurologically stable, long lasting and long term
-
Consolidation - Making a new memory stable and enduring
- 1/2 Internal, rapid storage
- 2/2 Slower, permanent process
- Reconsolidation - Retrieval and revision of a previously stored memory
- Does not store memories but transfers them to the neocortex (occurs in sleep)
- Plays significant role in linking new information to previous
- Important for spatial memory
31
Q
How is damage to the hippocampus exhibited?
A
- Difficulty forming new explicit memories
- Symptoms of Alzhiemer’s
- HM, Henry Molaison
- Removal caused anterograde amnesia (damage in retaining new memories) and retrograde amnesia (loss of past memories)
- Proves that the hippocampus is also important in retrieval
32
Q
How do the hippocampus and amygdala interact?
A
- The hippocampus plays a role in the explicit component of emotional memories
- When there is a extremely emotionally arousing event, the amygdala tells the hippocampus to increase consolidation
33
Q
Describe the role of the amygdala in memory
A
- Most known for role in processing and regulating emotional reactions (fear and anger) which helps retrieval of explicit memory
- Recognises similar events in future, particularly if it is linked to survival
- Involved in formation and consolidation of classically conditioned fear
- Does not permanently store memories
-
Flashbulb Memory - vivid, highly detailed and long-lasting memory of an event that is extremely emotionally arousing
- Often includes personal details
- Amygdala tells hippocampus to increase consolidation
34
Q
What happens to an individual if both amygdala’s are damaged/removed?
A
- Cannot learn to fear things that signal to danger
- Cannot express fear in appropriate situations
- Lose memory of learned fears
35
Q
Describe the role of the neocortex in memory
A
- Important roles in a range of memory processes
- Crucial role (recieving from hippocampus) in formation, consolidation, STORAGE and RETRIEVAL of explicit memories
-
Explicit memories are distributed across the neocortex, storage tends to be in areas where relevant information was processed
- Big memories have different pieces in different locations in the brain which are linked by neural networks - Neocortex helps put them together like a JIGSAW for recall/ conscious retrieval
36
Q
Describe the role of the basal ganglia in memory
A
- Role in implicit memory involving motor skills and habits through associating motivation with reward or reinforcement
- Medications that restore basal ganglia dopamine improve acquisition and retention of various simple motor tasks
-
Habituation - Growing accustomed to a stimulus or situation and therefore decreasing in response following repeated exposure
- Described as non-associative learning because it does not require association of 2 stimuli in order to produce a behaviour change
- Involuntary, occurs without intention to learn
- Automatic
37
Q
Compare and contrast the basal ganglia and amygdala
A
-
Similarity
- Both involved in implicit memory
-
Difference
- Basal ganglia is involved in motor skills, amygdala is involved in emotional memory
38
Q
Describe the role of the cerebellum in memory
A
- Multiple roles including coordinating fine muscle movements, regulating posture and balance as well as contributions to various perceptual and cognitive processes
- Best known for involvement in activities requiring a skilled sequence of movements that require timing and are made with speed, ease and fluency
- Everyday procedural movements
-
Does not store long term, well-learned reflexes go to neocortex
- Stores implicit memory of simple classically conditioned reflexes
39
Q
What is caused by damage to or removal of the cerebellum?
A
- Difficulty to time and coordinate muscle control for everyday activities
- Unable to store or acquire conditioned reflexes but can still remember experience
- Impaired spatial learning and memory
40
Q
Define autobiographical events
A
- Experiences that have occured at some time
- Stored in episodic memory
41
Q
Define mental time travel/episodic future thinking
A
- Using episodic and semantic memory to either revisit the past (episodic only) or imagine the future
42
Q
Define brain lesions
A
- Areas of brain tissue that have been damaged due to injury or disease
43
Q
Explain Alzheimer’s
A
-
Neurodegenerative disorder characterised by…
- Gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons
- Progressive memory decline
- Deterioration of cognitive and social skills (confusion, disorientation and repetition)
- Personality changes
- Brain Lesions
- Cortical areas (hippocampi) are damaged first, disrupting STM
- Neocortex
- Cerebellum
- Implicit memory is typically intact
- Loss of episodic memory first, then semantic
- Can be best diagnosed via Autopsy
- Brain imaging can also be possible but not with certainty because brain lesions are not visible - instead are used to rule out tumours, hemorrhages and strokes, which can mask Alzhiemer’s
44
Q
State the causes of Alzheimer’s
A
- Amyloid plaques (protein deposits inbetween neurons in the synapse)
- Neurofibrillary tangles - inside neurons
- Cortical shrinkage
- Imbalance in acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter involved in memory
45
Q
State and describe the 3 stages of Alzheimer’s
A
-
Early; 2-4 years
- Forgetting recent information
- Trouble organising and planning
- Lost in familiar places
-
Middle; 2-10 years
- Delusions, compulsions and repetitive behaviour
- Trouble learning new things
- Physical struggles (getting dressed bowel problems)
- Sleep problems
- Anterograde amnesia
-
Late; 1-3 years
- Personality and behaviour changes
- Cannot remember family and loved ones
- Lacks awareness
- Physical problems become more severe
- Retrograde amnesia
46
Q
What is aphantasia?
A
-
Absence of visual imagery
- Connection between visual cortex and cortex in frontal lobe is weak (therefore brain imaging is useful in diagnosis)
- Considered to be a normal variation in human experience but can still have an effect on everyday life
- Still POSSIBLE to be creative and imaginative
47
Q
What are common symptoms of aphantasia?
A
- Difficulty with facial recognition
- Autobiographical memories less vivid
- Reduced ability to recall episodic memories
- Difficulty to imagine future events
- Dream less
48
Q
What are the two types of aphantasia?
A
- Congenital - Present from birth
- Acquired - Present after brain injury or significant psychological event such as depression or anxiety
49
Q
Is there a cure for aphantasia?
A
- No cure for congenital
- Individuals with acquired aphantasia have reported regaining visual imagery after therapy
50
Q
What are similarities between people with Alzheimers and aphantasia in being able to undergo episodic future thinking?
A
- Both have difficulty with imagined futures
51
Q
What are differences between people with Alzheimers and aphantasia in being able to undergo episodic future thinking?
A
-
Different reasons for difficulty
- Alzheimers → Gradual because of degeneration (hippocampus-neocortex-cerebellum)
- Aphantasia → Constant difficulty because of an impaired mind’s eye
52
Q
Define and describe mnemonics
A
- Any technique used to consciously aid memory
- Uses information that is already stored in LTM by making a link or association with the new information
- Makes new information more elaborate
- Extra information enables better encoding due to the enhanced organisation
- Ease or difficulty of learning information depends on how well it fits with what we already know
53
Q
How do mnemonics assist memory?
A
- Create cues to assist ability to retrieve information in the required order/sequence by elaborating and organising the information in LTM
54
Q
Describe the types of mnemonics in written culture
A
-
Acronyms - Pronounceable words formed from the first letters of a group of words
- Initialisms - Abbreviations pronounced by saying each letter of the word individually
- Acrostics - Creating a sentence from first letters (useful for sequential information)
-
Method of Loci - Information converted into mental images associated with position or place
- Can improve memory by a factor of 2 or 3 times
- Each element acts as a cue for the next
55
Q
What is the first step in method of loci?
A
- Learn some locations that are easily distinguishable and well known to you
56
Q
Describe the mnemonic within oral culture
A
-
Songlines - sung narratives containing Dreamings
- Navigational route comprising a sequence of locations
- Enhanced through stories with vivid characters
- Acts as a table of contents
- Contains crucial information about seasons, food sources, navigation, tool making and laws
- Belongs to a certain location/ clan, not information to be spread around (can’t be replicated)
- Better suited to teaching in a singular, relatively short instruction period
- Do not follow a linear direction
Dreamings - stories and beliefs about culture contained within a songline
Only Aboriginal - Not Torres Strait
⭐ - Encoding, storage + Retrieval & Appropriate brain regions
🔗 - Ways of Knowing
57
Q
Why are songlines effective?
A
- Humans remember narratives easier over facts and knowledge alone
- Incorporating knowledge into a narrative ensures that the information is long lasting
58
Q
Do songlines remain constant throughout time?
A
- No because information is constantly added
- Songlines are always being modified in accordance to what affects Country
59
Q
What are two limitations of mnemonics?
A
- Better suited to list-like information
- Time consuming
60
Q
State two differences between songlines and methods of loci
A
- Songlines have a narrative structure, methods of loci don’t necessarily have one since information is often random
- Songlines have knowledge intimately related to the landscape, methods of loci contain encoded knowledge not inherently related to the places in the journey (arbitrary relationships)
61
Q
State two differences between songlines and acrostics
A
- Songlines are typically sung but not always, acrostics are typically not sung
- Songlines often increase in content over time, acrostics do not
62
Q
How does a mnemonic aid encoding, storage and retrieval?
A
- Encoding → Mnemonics allow for deeper encoding because they provide more detail and elaboration
- Storage → They allow for more robust storage of the information in LTM because links are made between the mnemonic and the information
- Retrieval → More easily accessible cues are available to assist in locating and recovering relevant information
63
Q
What should a model with high explanatory power contain?
A
- More observations can be accounted for
- Makes fewer assumptions
- More falsifiable
- More details of cause-and-effect relationships are provided
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