U3A2 learning and memory

Question 1

what is classical conditioning?

Answer 1

behaviourist process of learning through the involuntary association between stimuli producing a conditioned response.

Question 2

explain what happens in the three stages of classical conditioning.

Answer 2

before conditioning – neutral stimulus produces no response, unconditioned stimulus produces unconditioned response.

during conditioning – neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus repeatedly paired together to produce unconditioned response.

after conditioning – conditioned stimulus produces conditioned response.

Question 3

what is operant conditioning?

Answer 3

behaviourist process of learning through the voluntary association between stimuli producing reinforcement/consequence.

Question 4

explain what happens in the three stages of operant conditioning.

Answer 4

antecedent – stimulus/event precedes and elicits behaviour.

behaviour – voluntary actions that occur in presence of antecedent

consequence – outcome of behaviour determines likelihood of repeating

Question 5

explain the four types of consequences in operant conditioning.

Answer 5

positive reinforcement – addition of desirable stimulus to increase behaviour likelihood

negative reinforcement – removal of undesirable stimulus to increase behaviour likelihood

positive punishment – addition of undesirable stimulus to decrease behaviour likelihood

negative punishment – removal of desirable stimulus to decrease behaviour likelihood

Question 6

name two similarities and differences of classical and operant conditioning.

Answer 6

similarities:
- both are behaviourist approaches to learning
- both are three-phase processes

differences:
- operant is voluntary, classical is involuntary
- operant is active, classical is passive

Question 7

what is observational learning?

Answer 7

a social-cognitive form of learning in which someone observes another person’s actions + consequences to guide their future behaviour.

Question 8

name and explain the five stages of observational learning.

Answer 8

1. attention (actively focused on model’s behaviour + consequences)
2. retention (create a mental representation to remember model’s behaviour)
3. reproduction (must have physical and mental capabilities to replicate behaviour)
4. motivation (must want to reproduce behaviour, either intrinsic or extrinsic motivations)
5. reinforcement (receives a positive consequence for the behaviour, increasing likelihood of repeating behaviour)

Question 9

what is ‘indigenous ways of knowing’?

Answer 9

term that recognises the complexity and diversity of the ways first nations peoples learn and teach. it is an interconnected and holistic process of learning.

Question 10

name and explain some first nations multimodal approaches to learning.

Answer 10

• story sharing (learning through narrative)
• learning maps (mapping/visualising knowledge)
• nonverbal (sharing knowledge through dance, art, etc)
• symbols/images (images and metaphors to understand concepts)
• land links (learning inherently linked to nature and Country)
• nonlinear (taking knowledge from different viewpoints)
• deconstruct/reconstruct (break down a concept into smaller parts)
• community links (connecting to local values, needs and knowledge)

Question 11

what is memory? define encoding, storage and retrieval.

Answer 11

process of encoding, storing and retrieving info that has been previously encountered.
- encoding: conversion into usable form
- storage: retaining info over time
- retrieval: recovering stored info to use

Question 12

list the main parts of atkinson-shiffron’s multi-store model of memory.

Answer 12

external events > sensory memory > short term memory < long term memory

Question 13

describe sensory memory in reference to it’s function, capacity and duration.

Answer 13

function – entry point for new sensory info.
capacity – unlimited
duration – 0.2 to 4 seconds

Question 14

describe short-term memory in reference to it’s function, capacity and duration.

Answer 14

function – info is currently being attended to and actively manipulated.
capacity – 5-9 pieces of info
duration – 12-30 secs

Question 15

explain 4 ways the capacity of short-term memory can be increased.

Answer 15

• chunking (grouping bits of info into larger chunks that can be remembered as a single unit)
• rehearsal (doing something so that info can be retained)
• maintenance rehearsal (conscious repetition to be retained)
• elaborative memory (attaching meaning to the info)

Question 16

describe long-term memory in reference to it’s function, capacity and duration.

Answer 16

function – info is encoded and stored
capacity – unlimited
duration – unlimited

Question 17

what are the categories of long-term memory?

Answer 17

explicit memory (with awareness)
– episodic memory: personal experiences
– semantic memory: facts and knowledge

implicit memory (without awareness)
– procedural memory: skills for doing things
– classically conditioned memory: conditioned responses to stimuli

Question 18

name two strengths and weaknesses of atkinson + shiffron’s multi-store model of memory.

Answer 18

strengths:
– model distinguishes between memory stores
– model outlines memory store capacity and duration

weaknesses:
– model considered oversimplified
– model does not account for individual differences

Question 19

what is the role of the hippocampus in memory?

Answer 19

encodes and consolidates explicit memories and retrieves episodic memories.

Question 20

what is the role of the amygdala in memory?

Answer 20

encodes emotional content in implicit and explicit memories. involved in classically conditioned emotional responses.

Question 21

what is the role of the neocortex in memory?

Answer 21

long-term store of explicit memories. interacts with basal ganglia and cerebellum to store implicit procedural memories.

Question 22

what is the role of the basal ganglia in memory?

Answer 22

habitual learning. plays role in implicit procedural memory via interactions with neocortex and cerebellum.

Question 23

what is the role of the cerebellum in memory?

Answer 23

plays role in implicit procedural memory via interactions with neocortex and basal ganglia.
classically conditioned motor responses and simple reflexes.

Question 24

what are possible imagined futures? (refer to semantic and episodic memories)

Answer 24

possible imagined futures are hypothetical experiences/situations that individuals conceptualise in their mind.
(episodic memory) – possible imagined futures are subjective and includes more detailed elements.
(semantic memory) – possible imagined futures are consistent with that they already know about the world.

Question 25

describe alzheimer’s disease with reference to it’s symptoms, lesions, brain size and memories.

Answer 25

alzheimer’s is a neurodegenerative disease.
symptoms include cognitive decline, changes in personality, mood and emotion, frequent confusion or disorientation, and difficulty with language + communication.
a conclusive diagnosis can only be made post mortem (after death) by identifying lesions in the hippocampus. these lesions includeL
– amyloid plaques (beta-amyloid protein fragments that grow insoluble to inhibit communication between neurons)
– neurofibrillary tangles (tau protein accumulation that forms insoluble tangles within neurons that inhibits transport of essential substances that kills the neuron)
at the later stages of alzheimer’s, the brain is reduced in size due to a loss of neurons.
individuals with alzheimer’s lack the capacity to draw on episodic and semantic memories to form possible imagined futures.

Question 26

describe aphantasia.

Answer 26

phenomenon where individuals lack the capacity to generate mental images. individuals use sensory info organised in the STM than transferred to LTM to recreate perceptual experiences.
people with aphantasia may not be able to visualise vivid episodic memories, and visual components of semantic memories may be lacking.

Question 27

what is encoding?

Answer 27

converting information into a usable form so that it can be entered and stored.

Question 28

what is storage?

Answer 28

retaining info in memory over time.

Question 29

what is retrieval?

Answer 29

locating and recovering the stored information from memory to be used.

Question 30

define mnemonic devices.

Answer 30

techniques used to aid the encoding, storage and retrieval of information. they organise and link new info to fit in with existing info in LTM. creates strong retrieval pathways.

Question 31

define acronyms.

Answer 31

first letters of items form pronounceable word. the letters work as a retrieval cue to bring info into STM.

Question 32

define acrostics.

Answer 32

first letters of items form phrase/rhyme/poem to aid memory.

Question 33

define method of loci

Answer 33

converts items into mental images and associates them with specific locations to aid memory.

Question 34

define sung narratives

Answer 34

stories that share information through singing, harmony + rhythm.

Question 35

define songlines

Answer 35

multimodal performances conducted as a community travels through Country.