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MT6317 CLIN CHEM 1 > U3 LEC: CARBOHYDRATES (PT. 1) > Flashcards

U3 LEC: CARBOHYDRATES (PT. 1) Flashcards

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1
Q

This is the primary source of energy for brain, erythrocytes, and retinal cells in humans.

A

Carbohydrates

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2
Q

Carbohydrates are a primary source of?

A

energy

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3
Q

These organs cannot store carbs. and only relies on steady supply of glucose to tissues.

A
  • brain
  • erythrocytes (RBCs)
  • retinal cells
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4
Q

This is plasma found in extracellular fluid/blood, has a narrow range, and can cross the blood brain barrier.

A

Plasma glucose

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5
Q

Aside from energy supply, carbohydrates are also a?

A

major food source

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6
Q

Carbs are primarily stored as?

A

glycogen

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7
Q

Glycogen is stored in the?

A

liver and muscles

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8
Q

T/F: Liver is the primary storage of carbohydrates.

A

True

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9
Q

Carbs are involved in two disease states which are?

A
  • hyperglycemia
  • hypoglycemia
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10
Q

Increase in plasma glucose

A

hyperglycemia

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11
Q

Decrease in plasma glucose

A

hypoglycemia

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12
Q

Carbs are used for the diagnosis of?

A

Diabetes mellitus

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13
Q

What are the substances found in carbohydrates?

A

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen

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14
Q

Each carbon has usually?

A

1 molecule of Hydrogen

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15
Q

All carbohydrates contain what functional groups?

A
  • carbonyl (C=O)
  • hydroxyl (-OH)
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16
Q

C=O

A

carbonyl group

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17
Q

-OH

A

hydroxyl group

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18
Q

Substances contained in protein

A
  • CHO
  • Nitrogen
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19
Q

Derivatives of the basic formula

A

Cx(H2O)y

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20
Q

Carbohydrates are classified based on?

A
  • size or number of base carbon chain
  • location of the CO functional group
  • number of sugar units
  • stereochemistry
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21
Q

Based on size or number of base carbon chains

A
  • Triose
  • Tetrose
  • Pentose
  • Hexose
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22
Q

Based on size or number of base carbon chains

3 carbon chain compound

A

Trioses

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23
Q

Based on size or number of base carbon chains

4 carbon chain compound

A

Tetroses

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24
Q

Based on size or number of base carbon chains

5 carbon chain compound

A

Pentoses

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25
Q

Based on size or number of base carbon chains

Examples of Pentoses

A

Ribose, deoxyribose

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26
Q

Based on size or number of base carbon chains

6 carbon chain compound

A

Hexoses

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27
Q

Based on size or number of base carbon chains

Example of Hexoses

A

Glucose, galactose, fructose

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28
Q

This triose is the smallest carbohydrate.

A

Glyceraldehyde

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29
Q

Based on location of CO functional group

A
  • Aldose
  • Ketose
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30
Q

Based on size or number of base carbon chains

Terminal carbonyl group

A

Aldose (aldehyde group)

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31
Q

Based on size or number of base carbon chains

O=CH-

A

Aldose (aldehyde group)

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32
Q

Based on size or number of base carbon chains

Carbonyl group in the middle linked to carbon atoms

A

Ketose (ketone group)

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33
Q

Based on size or number of base carbon chains

C=O

A

Ketose (ketone group)

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34
Q

Carbohydrate models

A
  • Fisher Projection
  • Haworth Projection
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35
Q

Carbohydrate models

Has a straight form

A

Fisher

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36
Q

Fisher Projection

Aldehyde/ketone group is found at the?

A

top

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37
Q

Fisher Projection

Carbons are numbered starting at the?

A

head (Aldehyde/ketone)

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38
Q

Haworth Projection

Represent compound in what form?

A

cyclic form

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39
Q

T/F: Fisher projection is more of a representative of the actual structure.

A

False

Haworth

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40
Q

Haworth Projection

This is formed when functional group reacts with what group, on the same sugar to form a ring?

A

alcohol group

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41
Q

Based on number of sugar units

A
  • Monosaccharides
  • Disaccharides
  • Oligosaccharides
  • Polysaccharides
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42
Q

Based on number of sugar units

This is the simplest sugar, and cannot be hydrolyzed

A

Monosaccharides

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43
Q

Based on number of sugar units

Examples of Monosaccharides

A
  • Glucose
  • Fructose
  • Sucrose
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44
Q

Based on number of sugar units

2 monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds

A

Disaccharides

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45
Q

Based on number of sugar units

Disaccharides are joined by?

A

glycosidic bonds / link / linkage

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46
Q

Based on number of sugar units

Examples of Disaccharides

A
  • Lactose (1 glucose, 1 galactose)
  • Maltose (2 D-glucose)
  • Sucrose (1 glucose, 1 fructose)
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47
Q

Based on number of sugar units

Chains of 3 to 10 sugar units, means few

A

Oligosaccharides

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48
Q

Based on number of sugar units

Formed by linkage of many units (more than 10)

A

Polysaccharides

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49
Q

Based on number of sugar units

Examples of Polysaccharides

A
  • Glycogen
  • Starch
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50
Q

This refers to having the same order and type of bonds, but different arrangement and properties.

A

Stereoisomers

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51
Q

Stereoisomers

two forms

A

D or L type

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52
Q

Stereoisomers

Seen in the right, most sugars are in this form

A

D-isomer

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53
Q

Stereoisomers

Seen in the left

A

L-isomer

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54
Q

Stereoisomers account for?

A

spatial arrangement

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55
Q

What is being checked in stereoisomer?

A

position of hydroxyl group adjacent to central carbon

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56
Q

This refers to the asymmetric central carbons.

A

Chiral carbons

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57
Q

Chiral carbons are attached to?

A

Hydrogen and hydroxyl group

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58
Q

This refers to the separation of polysaccharides into monosaccharides.

A

Hydrolysis

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59
Q

What is consumed to separate the glycosidic link?

A

water

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60
Q

T/F: Digestion starts as soon as food enters the mouth.

A

True

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61
Q

This enzyme is released when chewing food.

A

Amylase (Salivary amylase)

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62
Q

These two components are derived once starch is broken down.

A
  1. Disaccharide
  2. Dextrin
63
Q

Most ingested CHO are?

A

polymers / polysaccharides

64
Q

Most ingested CHO

A
  • Starch
  • Glycogen
65
Q

Important organs involved for carbohydrate digestion

A
  • Mouth
  • Intestines
  • Liver
66
Q

This is released in the small intestine to dissolve food.

A

Pancreatic amylase

67
Q

Pancreatic amylase turns carbohydrates into?

A

monosaccharides

68
Q

This is released in the intestinal mucosa to further hydrolyze / break down polymers or starch.

A

Maltase

69
Q

Maltase is released in the?

A

intestinal mucosa

70
Q

Other gut-derived enzymes

A
  • Sucrase (for sucrose)
  • Lactase (for lactose)
71
Q

This is the only CHO that can be directly used for energy or storage.

A

Glucose

72
Q

T/F: Only when polysaccharides are converted to monosaccharides are they absorbed by the gut and get delivered to tissues.

A

True

73
Q

This condition refers to gastric juices, stops the action of amylase and is not useful for breaking down carbs.

A

acidic condition

74
Q

How much starch is broken down once it reaches the stomach?

A

around 30%

75
Q

Pathways of Glucose Metabolism

A
  • Embden Meyerhof Pathway
  • Hexose Monophosphate Shunt
  • Glycogenesis
76
Q

Ultimate goal for glucose is to convert it to?

A

carbon dioxide and water

77
Q

What is obtained during pathways of glucose metabolism?

A

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

78
Q

EMP

Other term

A

Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas Pathway (EMPP)

79
Q

EMP

Product

A

Pyruvate / Pyruvic acid (2)

80
Q

EMP

Consumed and Gained ATP

A

2, 4

81
Q

EMP

Net ATP

A

2

82
Q

EMP

ATP is consumed through?

A

Phosphorylation

83
Q

EMP

Phosphorylated products (consumes ATP)

A
  • Glucose 6-phosphate
  • Fructose 1,6-diphosphate
84
Q

EMP

Products which alongside gains ATP

A
  • 3-Phosphoglycerate
  • Pyruvate
85
Q

EMP

Product used for Krebs Cycle

A

Acetyl-coA

86
Q

EMP

Aerobic pathway, in Mitochondria

A

Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle / Aerobic Glycolysis)

87
Q

EMP

Anaerobic pathway, in Cytosol

A

Glycolysis

88
Q

EMP

This enzyme converts Pyruvate to Acetyl-coA

A

Lactate dehydrogenase

89
Q

In absence of glucose, other substrates can be used such as:

A
  • Glycerol
  • Fatty acids
  • Ketones
  • Amino acids
90
Q

Other substrates

For lipids

A

Glycerol

91
Q

Other substrates

For proteins

A

Amino acids

92
Q

This allows new formation of glucose using other substrates.

A

Gluconeogenesis

93
Q

This refers to the detour of glucose-6-phosphate from glycolytic pathway.

A

Hexose Monophosphate Shunt

94
Q

Hexose Monophosphate Shunt

Products

A

6-phosphogluconic acid / 6-phosphogluconate

95
Q

T/F: There is no ATP produced in Hexose Monophosphate Shunt.

A

True

only byproducts

96
Q

Hexose Monophosphate Shunt

This enzyme causes the glucose-6-phosphate to be dehydrogenated to 6-phosphogluconate.

A

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD)

97
Q

Hexose Monophosphate Shunt

This is the precursor to products used for biosynthetic reactions.

A

6-phosphogluconate

98
Q

Hexose Monophosphate Shunt

Byproducts

A
  • Ribose
  • NADPH
  • Glutathione disulfide (2G-SH)
99
Q

Hexose Monophosphate Shunt

This has a reducing power, in which absence of this will result to a destroyed lipid membrane and will result to cell death.

A

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)

100
Q

Hexose Monophosphate Shunt

This is used for nucleic acid production.

A

Ribose

101
Q

Hexose Monophosphate Shunt

Other term for glutathione disulfide

A

Oxidized glutathione

102
Q

Hexose Monophosphate Shunt

This is an antioxidant

A

Glutathione disulfide (2G-SH)

103
Q

T/F: Antioxidants prevent oxidative stress or damage, but does not prevent action of free radicals.

A

False

104
Q

This pathway refers to storage of glycogen in the liver to reuse it in conditions of exhausted glucose in plasma or blood.

A

Glycogenesis

105
Q

This pathway happens only when the body’s energy requirements are being met

A

Glycogenesis

106
Q

This pathway converts glycogen back to glucose, only in the liver.

A

Glycogenolysis

107
Q

The liver is the only organ where it synthesizes

A

Glucose-6-phosphatase

108
Q

This enzyme converts glucose to glycogen.

A

Glycogen synthase

109
Q

This enzyme converts to glucose-UDP.

A

Uridine triphosphate (UTP)

110
Q

Used for brief fasting (decreased glucose, increased glycogen)

A

Glycogenolysis

111
Q

Used for fasting for more than 24 hours (decreased glycogen in liver, use other substrates)

A

Gluconeogenesis

112
Q

Metabolism of glucose molecule to pyruvate or lactate for energy production

A

Glycolysis

113
Q

Formation of glucose-6-phosphate from noncarbohydrate sources

A

Gluconeogenesis

114
Q

Breakdown of glycogen to glucose

A

Glycogenolysis

115
Q

Conversion of glucose to glycogen for storage

A

Glycogenesis

116
Q

Conversion of carbohydrates to fatty acids

A

Lipogenesis

117
Q

Decomposition of fat

A

Lipolysis

118
Q

Carbohydrate Metabolism Regulation

Organs involved

A
  • Liver
  • Pancreas
  • Other endocrine glands
119
Q

Carbohydrate Metabolism Regulation

Major hormones involved:

A
  • Insulin
  • Glucagon
120
Q

Carbohydrate Metabolism Regulation

Other hormones involved

A
  • Somatostatin
  • Epinephrine
  • Cortisol & ACTH
  • Thyroxine
  • Growth Hormone
121
Q

This organ is elongated, tapered, and is located behind the stomach.

A

Pancreas

122
Q

Pancreas

Widest part, found in the back of duodenum, acts as the first entry to small intestine

A

Head of pancreas

123
Q

Pancreas

These are small, scattered clusters that are concentrated in the body of pancreas.

A

Islet of Langerhans

124
Q

Pancreas

Most abundant in the islet of langerhans, arranged in central core

A

Beta cells

125
Q

This hormone is released by the beta cells of the islets of langerhans in pancreas.

A

Insulin

126
Q

Primary hormone responsible for entry of glucose into the cell

A

Insulin

127
Q

This is the ONLY HORMONE THAT CAN DECREASE GLUCOSE LEVEL.

A

Insulin

128
Q

Agent which decreases blood glucose

A

Hypoglycemic

129
Q

This hormone is produced by alpha cells of islets of langerhans in the pancreas.

A

Glucagon

130
Q

Glucagon is released during?

A

stress, fasting states

131
Q

This hormone is produced by the delta cells of islets of langerhans in pancreas.

A

Somatostatin

132
Q

Somatostatin is also known as?

A

Growth hormone inhibiting hormone

133
Q

Somatostatin regulates?

A

insulin and glucagon

134
Q

This hormone is produced in the adrenal medulla.

A

Epinephrine

135
Q

Epinephrine is released in times of?

A

stress

136
Q

MOA of Epinephrine

A
  • inhibits insulin
  • increases glycogenolysis
  • promotes lipolysis
137
Q

This is also known as stress hormone.

A

Cortisol

138
Q

Cortisol is produced in the?

A

zona fasiculata (Adrenal cortex)

139
Q

Cortisol is produced on stimulation of?

A

Adenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

140
Q

ACTH is produced by the?

A

pituitary gland

141
Q

MOA of Cortisol

A
  • decreases intestinal entry into the cell
  • increases gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, glycogenolysis
142
Q

This hormone is produced in the thyroid gland.

A

Thyroxine

143
Q

Thyroxine is stimulated by the production of?

A

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

144
Q

MOA of Thyroxine

A
  • increases glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, intestinal absorption of glucose
145
Q

This hormone is produced in the anterior pituitary gland.

A

Growth Hormone

146
Q

Growth Hormone is stimulated by?

A

decreased glucose levels

147
Q

MOA of Growth Hormone

A
  • decreasing entry of glucose into cells
  • increases glycolysis
148
Q

This disease is associated with too much cortisol.

A

Cushing’s syndrome

149
Q

This disease is associated with lack of cortisol.

A

Addison’s Syndrome

150
Q

Hyperglycemia is categorized too high if?

A

FBS is higher than 100mg/dL

151
Q

Hyperglycemia

non fasting

A

140 mg/dL

152
Q

Blood sugar is considered too low if it is?

A

lower than 50mg/dL

153
Q

Hypoglycemia can be one of trigger factors for?

A

seizures

MT6317 CLIN CHEM 1 (8 decks)

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