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VCE Biology Units 3/4 > U3 AOS 1 > Flashcards

U3 AOS 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Nucleic Acids

A

DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid
RNA: Ribonuic Acid

Nucleotide: composed of phosphate, 5-Carbone sugar, Nitrogenous Base

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2
Q

RNA types

A

a) messenger RNA (mRNA) - carries genetic info from nucleus to ribosome to direct protein synthesis

b) ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - makes up ribosomes

c) transfer RNA (tRNA) - transfer amino acids to ribosomes for protein synthesis

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3
Q

Genetic Code

A

Represents genetic information stored in DNA as a triplet code with gene selection

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4
Q

A gene

A

A section of DNA that codes for proteins

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5
Q

Gene Expression Steps: Transcription

A

**Initiation- ** proteins Bind to a promoter region when RNA breaks bonds and unwinds DNA

** Elongation-** RNA moves in a 3’ to 5’ direction reading the nucleotide sequence and adding complementary nucleotides to form pre-mRNA

** Termination -** A terminator sequence is reached. DNA rewinds and reforms.

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6
Q

Gene Expression Steps - RNA Processing

A

Turns pre-mRNA into mRNA

• Adds 5’ methyl cap and 3’ Poly-A-Tail
• (removes introns, splices exons)

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7
Q

Gene Expression Steps - Translation

A

Initiation - Ribosomes bind to mRNA and reads code to make a chain of amino acids

Elongation - tRNA binds a complementary anticodon to the mRNA codon.

Termination - stop codon reached. Polypeptide formed.

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8
Q

Degeneration

A

Several codons may code for the same amino acid

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9
Q

Exons

A

Coding regions of a gene
(Transcribed and Translated )

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10
Q

Introns

A

Non -coding regions of a gene
(Transcribed only)

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11
Q

Promoter Region

A

A region of DNA that contains a binding site for RNA polymerase

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12
Q

Operator Region

A

Regions of DNA that the repressor proteins binds to.

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13
Q

Regulatory + Structural Genes

A

Regulatory - produces proteins that turn structural proteins on and off.

**Structural - ** codes for proteins needed for the body to function.

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14
Q

Amino acid

A

R group
Cooh group
Central carbon
Hydrogen ion
Amine group

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15
Q

Role of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

Modify Polypeptide

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16
Q

Role of Ribosomes

A

Translate polypeptide chains

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17
Q

Role of Transport Vesicles

A

Transport modified polypeptide

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18
Q

Golgi Vesicle

A

Transport proteins to cell membrane

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19
Q

Plasma Membrane

A

Proteins are secreted to the extracellular fluid.

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20
Q

Enzymes

A

Speed up reactions
Amylase. Catalase.

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21
Q

Proteome

A

Set of proteins produced by a cell or organism

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22
Q

Non Competitive Inhibitors

A

A molecule that binds to an enzyme at any site other than the active site

Changes the shape so that the substrate can no longer bind to active site.

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23
Q

Competitive Inhibition

A

A substrate that competes with a substrate for an active site.

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24
Q

Lock and Key Mechanism

A

The substrate fits into the active site to enable a reaction. If it doesn’t fit then no reaction occurs.

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25
Q

Induced Fit Model

A

The substrate binds to the active site of an enzyme, changing the shape of site to fit.

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26
Q

Ligase

A

Enzyme that joines nucleic acids together

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27
Q

RNA Polymerase - manipulating DNA

A

• Unwinds in a 5’ to 3’ direction
• Forms RNA (and 3 types) by transcription of a gene

28
Q

DNA Polymerase

A

Assembles DNA

29
Q

Endonuclease (restriction enzyme)

A

**Cut up DNA into smaller fragments by cutting at recognition site. **

Resulting Fragments can be;
**1. Sticky Ends ** - can only join to sticky ends with complementary base sequences. Overhang

2. Blunt Ends - can join to blunt ends. No Overhang

30
Q

Reverse Transcriptase Steps

A
  1. MRNA is isolated from cytosol
  2. Poly-A- tail is added to mRNA
  3. Primer is added and binds to tail
  4. Reverse enzyme added.
  5. When DNA is complete, mRNA removed.
  6. Polymerase enzyme added.
  7. Double Stranded DNA product.

**Cut twice.
If linear = 3pieces
If circular = 2 pieces **

31
Q

Sticky Ends

A
  1. A restriction endonuclease cuts DNA at a recognition site.
  2. Cut produces sticky ends
  3. Two sticky ends cut by the same endonuclease join by base pairing
32
Q

Ligation

A

**Joins the fragments together **

Steps: sticky end
1. Sticky ends are formed by endonuclease.

  1. Weak hydrogen bonds attract
  2. Other ends of foreign DNA are attached to the remaining sticky end of the plasmid with ligase

Steps: blunt.
1. Two fragments come into contact and using ligase, join together.

33
Q

Crispr-Cas9

A

A genome editiong tool that allows the cutting and editing of DNA.

Steps:

  1. Create a complex with a short RNA sequence (sgRNA) and CRISPR. The RNA sequence is complementary to target DNA
  2. Using guide RNA, Cas 9 identifies the DNA in genome and cuts strands.
  3. Insert donor DNA at cut
  4. Cell repairs DNA integrating change.
34
Q

PCR Process

A

Steps

  1. Denaturation- separate DNA by **heating ** to 95-98 degrees for 5 minutes to break hydrogen bonds.
  2. Annealing- mixture cools to 55 degrees to allow primers to bind to complementary strands.
  3. Elongation- Heat to 70 degrees, DNA polymerase moves along strands, adding nucleotides to 3’ end.
35
Q

Gel Electrophoresis: Steps

A
  1. Gel is made
  2. DNA is extracted.
  3. Endonucleases break DNA into

fragments, or PCR makes copies.

  1. DNA loaded into wells
  2. One lane has a marked solution.
  3. Current applied to gel : negatively charged DNA attaches to positively charged gel.
  4. Small particles move faster than large
36
Q

Transgenic Organism

A

Types of GMOs that contain genes from another species.

37
Q

Transgenic Organism

A

A type of GMO that has genes from another species.

Used to improve crops and prevent disease.

Implications
- Biological: safety of consumption, cross pollination

  • Social: equal access, labelling, pricing

-Ethical: intervention in evolutionary process.

38
Q

Active site

A

The region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction

39
Q

Allosteric site

A

Any part of an enzyme other than an active site

40
Q

Exocytosis

A

Bulk transport of substances out of a cell

41
Q

Endocytosis

A

Bulk transport of substances into a cell

42
Q

Vector in recombinant DNA technology

A

Adds foreign DNA into a cell or organism

43
Q

Recombinant plasmid

A

A plasmid containing foreign genetic material

44
Q

PAM (Protospacer adjacent motif)

A

A short sequence of nucleotides downstream from a target sequence that allows the binding of Cas9.

  • It separates the strands of DNA to allow the binding of single guide RNA (sgRNA) to the complementary DNA sequence.
45
Q

Cofactor

A

a molecule that aids enzyme function

46
Q

What are the three stages and their corresponding temperatures that are cycled through in PCR?

A

**heating ** to 95-98 degrees for 5 minutes for denaturation, 55°C for annealing and 70°C for extension

47
Q

Which end of a nucleotide can new nucleotides be added to?

A

3’ end

48
Q

Which base replaces thymine in RNA?

A

Uracil

49
Q

Principles of the trp operon

A

The trp operon is found in E. coli bacteria. Tryptophan is an amino acid that is needed in small quantities, and so to save energy and resources in a cell, the genes that code for it are only expressed when it is in low levels. These genes are part of the trp operon, which consists of 5 structural genes (trp E to trp A) that share common promoter and operator regions upstream of the genes. When tryptophan is present, it binds to repressor molecules, which change their shape so that they are complementary in shape to the operator region, and bind to it, so that RNA polymerase cannot pass to transcribe the genes. However if tryptophan is present in low levels, it does not bind to the repressor molecule, and so the repressor molecule is not complementary to the operator region, and transcription continues.

50
Q

Short tandem repeats

A

Short repeated DNA sequences that can be used to match a persons genetic material to a sample

51
Q

CRISPR-Cas 9 principles

A

CRISPR-Cas9 in bacteria has two important features, nucleotide repeats and spacers. The spacers are segments of DNA cut from invading viruses (bacteriophages) stored in the bacteria’s genome that allow the bacteria to recognise the same virus in the event of subsequent invasions. Cas9 is an endonuclease associated with CRISPR and precisely cuts DNA. Cas9 will only cut out the target sequence if it recognises a very short nucleotide sequence adjacent to the target spacer called a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) sequence. When utilised in genetic engineering, a single-guide RNA (sgRNA) sequence that joins the Cas9 complex will bind to a complementary DNA sequence and cut it at this sequence, acting as a spot where DNA can be added or removed, and the cell will detect and repair the broken sequence of DNA incorporating the changes made.

52
Q

What is the purpose of gel electrophoresis?

A

To separate fragments of DNA based on their base length

53
Q

How many hydrogen bonds form between adenine and thymine/uracil?

A

2

54
Q

How many hydrogen bonds form between cytosine and guanine?

A

3

55
Q

Terms for groups of three nucleotides

A

Base triplets (DNA) –> Codons (mRNA) –> Anticodons (tRNA)

56
Q

Terminator region

A

A region of DNA found downstream of a gene that stops the transcription of the gene

57
Q

Function of methyl cap and poly-A tail in post-transcriptional modification

A

Increase mRNA stability and prevent degradation

58
Q

Reverse transcriptase

A

An enzyme that synthesises single-stranded DNA using RNA as a template.

59
Q

Process to produce recombinant plasmids

A

1) Target DNA is cut out from a DNA sequence using restriction enzymes that leave sticky ends.

2) The bacterial plasmid is then cut by the same restriction enzyme to leave sticky ends that are complementary to that of the foreign DNA.

3) The plasmid and the DNA are exposed to each other with DNA ligase to catalyse the formation of phosphodiester bonds to join the fragments.

4) Some plasmids will accept the DNA.

60
Q

Differences between RNA and DNA

A
  • RNA contains uracil, while DNA contains thymine,
  • RNA is double stranded while DNA is double stranded
  • RNA contains ribose sugar while DNA contains deoxyribose sugar
61
Q

Why is gene regulation important for an organism?

A

Proteins will only be produced when they are required, which saves resources and energy (in the form of ATP) that are required to produce proteins

62
Q

What does the presence of uracil or thymine in a nucleic acid indicate respectively?

A

That the nucleic acid is RNA or DNA

63
Q

steps to form bioethanol

A
  1. Find and deconstruct biomass
  2. Break down starch and cellulose into glucose
  3. Make ethanol via anaerobic fermentation
  4. Dehydrate and purify ethanol
64
Q

repression steps

A
  • Tryptophan binds to TRP repressor.
  • Binds to operator region, blocking RNA Polymerase from binding.

Therefore stopping TRP production

65
Q

Attenuation

A
  • Leader segment of TRP is translated by RNA Polymerase
  • Forms hairpin loop to stop translation

VCE Biology Units 3/4 (4 decks)

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