Tutorial 7-13 Flashcards
1
Q
Actin
A
A globular protein that links into chains. When two chains of actins are helically twisted, they form microfilaments in muscle and other kinds of cells.
2
Q
Chloroplast
A
A double-membrane bound organelle that is the site of photosynthesis.
3
Q
Cytoskeleton
A
A complex scaffold of proteins within the cytoplasm made up of three major components: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
4
Q
Endomembrane system
A
A network of membrane-bound chambers where protein production and modification take place.
5
Q
Golgi apparatus
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A component of the endomembrane system involved in processing proteins.
6
Q
Hydrolytic enzyme (hydrolase)
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A general category of enzymes that have the ability to hydrolyze (decompose by reacting with water) various substrates. Lysosomes house some hydrolytic enzymes that degrade material within the vesicles.
7
Q
Intermediate filament
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A thick, cable-like structure made of fibrous proteins wrapped around one another. Intermediate filaments support cell structures and anchor organelles in the correct position within the cell.
8
Q
Lysosome
A
An eukaryotic membrane-bound compartment involved in breaking down materials.
9
Q
Microfilament
A
The smallest cytoskeletal fibers made of polymerized subunits of actin. Microfilaments facilitate cellular migration or contraction of muscle cells.
10
Q
Mitochondrion
A
A double-membrane bound orgallele that is the location of cellular respiration.
11
Q
Myosin fiber
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A type of motor protein that associates into filaments that interact with actin filaments to cause cell contraction.
12
Q
Nuclear pore
A
Pores in the nuclear envelope that allows messenger RNAs to exit the nucleus.
13
Q
Nucleus
A
One of the most visible organelles in the cell. It contains the genetic material and is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope.
14
Q
Organelle
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Organelles are specialized structures that are separated from the rest of the cell by a phospholipid bilayer. Some prokaryotes contain rudimentary organelles.
15
Q
Ribosome
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Structures made of ribosomal RNA molecules and proteins and are the sites of protein synthesis in cells.
16
Q
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
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A type of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that houses ribosomes on its surface, which is where many of the proteins targeted for export outside the cell are synthesized. Ribosomes on its surface gives this organelle a “rough” appearance.
17
Q
Secretory vesicle
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The final transport vesicle that buds from the trans face of the Golgi apparatus. Secretory vesicles bind and fuse with the internal face of the plasma membrane by interacting with specific membrane proteins.
18
Q
Signal sequence
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A sequence of amino acids that directs newly synthesized proteins destined for export to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
19
Q
Signal recognition particle (SRP)
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A protein RNA complex that binds to the growing polypeptide and facilitates association with the rough ER and guides it to a specific receptor site located within rough ER pore complexes.
20
Q
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
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A type of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that synthesizes lipids and degrades toxins. The surface of smooth ER lacks ribosomes, and therefore appearing smooth.
21
Q
Alveoli
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Small cavities enclosed in membranes that hug the internal cell surface. Alveoli are unique features of alveolates.
22
Q
Alveolate
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Organisms belonging to the kingdom Alveolata, which has three distinct groups: dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and ciliates.
23
Q
Apical complex
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A cluster of microtubules and organelles located in the apex of cells that are in the infectious stage used to penetrate host cells.
24
Q
Apicomplexan
A
Organism in the kingdom Alveolata that are parasites, specialized for living and reproducing within the tissues of animals.
25
Dinoflagellate
A protest in the kingdom Alveolata that has distinct shapes due to “frames” of cellulose within cell walls. The cell surface of dinoflagellates generally is rigid and has perpendicular grooves with a pair of flagella that allows dinoflagellates to rotate as they move forward.
26
Diplomonad
One of two groups of anaerobe protists with highly modified mitochondria (called mitosomes) that lack functional electron transport chains and thus are unable to perform cellular respiration so they derive their energy from pathways such as glycolysis. They lack Golgi, always have flagella, and are often parasites.
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Euglenoid
One of two groups of organisms belonging to kingdom Euglenozoa that consists of Euglena and its relatives. They are primarily photosynthetic and have flagella structurally distinctive from those of prokaryotes.
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Euglenozoan
One of two groups of organisms belonging to kingdom Euglenozoa that consists of Euglena and its relatives. They are primarily photosynthetic and have flagella structurally distinctive from those of prokaryotes.
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Euglenozoan
A member of kingdom Euglenozoa, a diverse group of flagellated protists that includes predatory heterotrophs, photosynthetic autotroph, and pathogenic parasites.
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Exoskeleton
Secreted calcium carbonate shell.
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Kinetoplast
An organelle that stores extranuclear DNA in kinetoplastids.
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Kinetoplastid
One of two groups of organisms belonging to kingdom Euglenozoa that includes Trypanosoma and its relatives. All organisms in the kinetoplastids have one large mitochondrion and an organelle called a kinetoplast.
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Monophyletic
Arising from a single common ancestor.
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Parabasalids
One of two groups of anaerobe protists with highly modified mitochondria but some species contain a structure known as a hydrogensome that may be a degenerate mitochondrion. They have flagella and functional Golgi.
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Phytoplankton
Microscopic marine algae that float near the surface of the ocean. they are an essential food resource for many other organisms from heterotrophic protists to baleen whales.
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Plankton
Minute animal and plant life in the ocean.
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Polyphyletic
Members of the polyphyletic groups are descendants of different protest lineages.
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Protist
A relatively simple eukaryotic organism.
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Trichomonad
A parasitic flagellate protists belonging to genus Trichomonas.
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Zooxanthellae
A type of dinoflagellates that have mutualistic symbiotic relationship with reef-building cnidarians.
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Amoebozoa
A kingdom of amoeboid protozoa that includes protest Amoeba and slime molds.
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Bacillariophyte
An organism also called diatom belonging to the phylum Bcillariophyta.
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Blade
A leaf-like structure of a seaweed which provide extensive surface area for photosynthesis.
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Chlorophyte
Also called green algae, chlorophytes are more closely related to plants than are the other photosynthetic protists. They store fixed carbon as starch and have cell walls composed of cellulose.
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Chrysophyte
A planktonic, mainly freshwater organisms that possess a rich golden color due to the presence of pigments carotenoids and xanthophylls.
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Convergent evolution
The process by which unrelated organisms that occupy similar environments evolve similar functional traits.
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Diatom
Photosynthetic protist in the stamenopile that is an important component of the global carbon cycle. Diatoms have a unique glass-like perforated wall made of silica embedded in an organic matrix.
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Holdfast
A structure of a seaweed that secures it to a substrate.
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Kelp
Giant seaweeds that grow in the deeper waters outside of the intertidal zone. Kepls are all phaeophytes and form vast “forests.”
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Lichen
Terrestrial chlorophyte that live in a symbiotic association with fungi.
51
Oomycete
An organism belonging to the phylum Oomycota including water molds and downy mildews. Some unicellular and some colonial, most oomycetes are heterotrophic decomposers, but some attack living plants and animals.
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Phaeophyte
Also called brown algae, phaeophytes include the largest of the protists including kelp.
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Phycobilin
A pigment that produce rich shades of pink, scarlet, and red in rhodophytes (red algae).
54
Rhodophyte
Also called red algae, rhodophytes are members of Kingdom Phodophyta and are eukaryotic algae without flagellated cells at any point in their life cycle. A number of species live in freshwater and some even inhabit terrestrial niches, but most are marine algae. The color of rhodophyte species tends to be correlated with the depth where they commonly occur.
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Seaweed
A multiple-species large intertidal alga that have complex structure similar to plants.
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Silica
Glass-like material that makes up shells of diatoms
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Stramenopile
A remarkably diverse, monophyletic group that share a common ancestral trait of hair-like projections on their flagella. Stramenopiles include planktonic diatoms, small single-celled or colonial freshwater protists (golden algae), large multicellular marine seaweeds (brown algae), and water molds.
58
Stipe
A structure of a seaweed that is analogous to the stem of plants.
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Thallus
The entire body of any seaweed that is plant-like in appearance that consists of stipe, holdfast, and blades.
60
Anaphase
The phase in mitosis during which the replicated chromatids separate rapidly once the chromosomes are properly aligned along the metaphase plate. Two notable events during anaphase are: 1) dissolution of centromeres that hold sister chromatids together to allow separation and 2) the newly freed chromatids (now properly called chromosomes) move rapidly toward the poles due to being pulled by spindle fibers.
61
Cell cycle
An ordered sequence of events in the life of a cell until it divides into two.
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Centromere
A condensed area found on all replicated eukaryotic chromosomes that join sister chromatids.
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Chromatid
One of two identical parts of replicated chromosome. Chromatids are joined at the centromere and split apart during cell divisions.
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Cleavage furrow
The first sign of cleavage in an animal cell noted by a shallow groove around the cell in the cell surface near where metaphase plate was located.
65
Cytokinesis
The division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells immediately after mitosis, meiosis I, or meiosis II.
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G1 phase
The first growth phase of the cell cycle that comes before DNA synthesis in Interphase.
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G2 Phase
The second growth phase of the cell cycle that comes after DNA synthesis in Interphase.
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Interphase
The longest portion of the eukaryotic cell cycle. Interphase has three phases: G1 growth phase, the S phase, and the G2 growth phase.
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Karyokinesis
The separation of the chromosomes. Reformation of the nuclear envelope around the daughter cell chromosomes marks the completion of karyokinesis.
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Kinetochore
A group of proteins around the centromere of a chromosome during cell division - the microtubules of the spindle attach to the centromere to pull the sister chromatids apart.
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M phase
The mitotic phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle. It includes mitosis and cytokinesis.
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Metaphase
The phase in mitosis where all of the chromosomes move into a line in the metaphase plate guided by spindles attached at their kinetochores.
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Metaphase plate
An imaginary line located at a plane midway between the two poles of a cell in metaphase on which replicated chromosomes line up.
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Mitosis
A process by which eukaryotic cell division occurs through five stages: prophase, prometaphse, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Mitosis provides single-celled organisms a way of reproduction and multi-cellular organisms a way to grow.
75
Nuclear envelope
The perforated double membrane that surround the nucleus in a eukaryotic cell. Pores on the nuclear envelope regulate traffic with the cytoplasm.
76
Prometaphase
The phase in mitosis between prophase and metaphase. The start of prometaphse is marked by dissolution of the nuclear envelope.
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Prophase
The first phase of mitosis marked by condensation of chromosomes.
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S phase
The synthesis phase of the interphase during which DNA is replicated.
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Telophase
The phase in mitosis during which chromosomes decondense and nuclear envelope reform.
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Allele
Alleles of a gene are alternative forms of the gene that result in the formation of slightly different proteins and enzymes that leads to differences between individuals.
81
Asexual reproduction
One of two ways organisms reproduce during which individuals produce genetically identical offspring. The relative quickness of the process, low-energy requirement, and avoidance of the potential for creating a bad combination of genes are considered advantages of asexual reproduction while lack of genetic variation is considered a disadvantage.
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Chromosome
A cellular structure containing nuclear DNA and associated protein molecules. Genes occupy specific positions on chromosomes.
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Clone
An individual genetically identical to another individual.
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Crossing over
A process of genetic recombination via the exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids of a homologous pair during synapsis resulting in genetic variation.
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Diploid cell
A cell with two sets of chromosomes (abbreviated as “2n”) with each set coming from each parent.
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Fertilization
The union of haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote.
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Gamete
A reproductive cell.
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Gene
A discrete unit of genetic material that contains hereditary information. A gene consists of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA for most organisms or RNA for some viruses.
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Haploid cell
A cell with one set of chromosomes (abbreviated as “1n”).
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Homologous chromosomes (homologs)
A pair of chromosomes with the same genes (each gene at the same locus), but not necessarily the same alleles. Each of the homologs comes from each parent.
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Independent assortment
The phenomenon contributing to genetic variation where each pair of allele segregates independently of other pair when homologous pairs line up on the metaphase plate during metaphase I during meiosis due to the orientation of each homologous pair being random.
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Karyotype
An image of the full set of chromosomes of an organism arranged into pairs.
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Life cycle
The sequence of stages in the reproductive process of an organism repeated generation-to-generation.
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Meiosis
A cell division in sexually reproducing organisms. Meiosis consists of two rounds of cell divisions, but DNA replication happens only once before meiosis starts, which results in cells with half the number of chromosomes sets as the mother cell (the original cell).
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Nonsister chromatid
Two chromatids each from each chromosome of a homologous pair.
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Recombination
Often used as an interchangeable term for crossing over, but also is a general term for the production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parent.
97
Sexual reproduction
One of two ways organisms reproduce during which the genetic material from two parents combines to form offspring who are genetically distinct from their parents and from other siblings produced by the same parents. While sexual reproduction requires more energy and time than asexual reproduction, it provides genetic diversity that can allow a selective advantage in an unpredictable environment.
98
Sister chromatid
Two chromatids joined together at a centromere that form a chromosome.
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Synapsis
The pairing and physical connection of duplicated homologous chromosomes during prophase I and metaphase I of meiosis that can result in crossing over.
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Zygote
A diploid cell resulting from the union of two gametes.
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Absorptive nutrition
A way of obtaining energy and nutrition where food sources are digested externally, then absorbed into their cells.
102
Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM)
A distinct branching form of mycorrhizae formed by glomeromycetes. The fungus penetrates the root cells of a vascular plant.
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Chytrid
An organism belonging to the Chytridiomycota group. Chytrids are the most primitive members of the Kingdom Fungi that are aquatic and often called “water fungi.”
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Dikaryon
A mycelium with two nuclei from the two mating types found in Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes.
105
Fungi
Various heterotrophic organisms belonging to the Kingdom Fungi that are most commonly decomposers, assisting in the essential task of reccling nutrients in ecosystems. The kingdom is comprised of six major groups: Microsporidians, Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota.
106
Glomeromycete
An organism of the phylum Glomeromycota characterized by a distinct branching form of mycorrhizae called arbuscular mychorrhizae.
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Haustorium (pl. haustoria)
A specialized structure of fungal plant parasites that are used to invade host tissue and to absorb the cellular contents of their hosts.
108
Heterokaryon
A mycelium with multiple nuclei from the two mating types.
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Hypha (pl. hyphae)
Fungal hyphae (not to be confused with hyphae of the oomycetes) are filamentous vegetative structures that congregate to form mycelium.
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Karyogamy
The fusion of two haploid nuclei from two parents.
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Lichen
A symbiotic composite organism comprised of two fungal partners (an ascomycete and a basidiomycete) and a photoynthetic partner (either an alga or a cyanobacterium)
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Microsporidian
An intracellular parasite of animals or protists, mainly affecting invertebrates. Microsporidian have mitochondria, but not mitosomes nor any means of locomotion.
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Mycelium (pl. mycelia)
A group or mass of hyphae that allows an extensively increased surface area in a small space allowing ideal absorption of nutrition.
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Mycorrhiza (pl. mycorrhizae)
An intimate association (symbiosis) between plant roots and fungal hyphae.
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Plasmogamy
The fusion of cell membranes
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Saprobe
Decomposers that absorb nutrients from dead organic matter
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Spore
Spores are units of asexual and sexual reproduction. They are cells that are specialised for dispersal to new locations by air, water or animals. Spores can be highly resistant to harsh environmental conditions.
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Zygomycetes
Fungal species in the phylum Zygomycota. Most zygomycetes are terrestrial and exist as saprobes in soil on decaying materials. They are characterized by the production of the zygosporangium.
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Zygosporangium (pl. zygosporangia)
A sturdy multinucleate structure in which karyogamy and meiosis occur.
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Zygospore
A thick-walled resting zygomycete diploid cell created by the fusion of two similar gametes.
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Ascocarp
The microscopic fruiting body of ascomycete.
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Ascomycetes
A member of the fungal phylum Ascomycota. Commonly called “sac fungus” due to their sac-like structure for spore development.
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Ascospore
Ascospores are sexual spores produced by ascomycete fungi. They are encased in an ascus as a group of four to eight.
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Ascus (pl. asci)
A microscopic sac-like structure that contains four to eight ascospores.
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Basidiocarp
The conspicuous fruiting body of a basidiomycete.
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Basidiomycetes
A member of the fungal phylum Basidiomycota. Commonly called “club fungi” due to the appearance of the cells with sexual spores resembling a small club.
127
Basidiospore
A sexual spore produced by a basidiomycete.
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Basidium (pl. basidia)
A cell that bears the sexual spores of basidiomycete.
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Club fungus
A common name for a basidiomycete due to the appearance of the cells with sexual spores resembling a small club.
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Gilled fungus
A common name for some basidiomycetes due to the presence of gills.
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model organism
A model organism is a non-human species that has been widely studied, usually because it is easy to maintain, reproduces quickly, breeds readily in a laboratory setting and has particular experimental advantages.
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Mycotoxin
A toxic metabolite produced by a fungus.
133
Sac fungus
A common name for an ascomycete due to the fact that the produces a microscopic sac-like cell that encases four to eight sexual spores.
134
Yeast
Single-celled fungus.
