Tutorial 1-6 Flashcards
1
Q
Adaptation
A
Traits that help an organism survive in its current environment.
2
Q
Biological evolution
A
Changes in the genetic structure of a population.
3
Q
Life
A
The condition that distinguishes living organisms from non-living matter. Some features of life include: order, the need for energy, growth and development, regulation or one’s internal environment, the ability to reproduce, the ability to respond to one’s external environment, and evolutionary adaptation.
4
Q
Natural selection
A
A process by which a population becomes better adapted to its environment over time. Also can be defined as “differential reproduction” – the best adapted individuals are more likely to reproduce than less well adapted individuals.
5
Q
Amino acid
A
The basic monomer of proteins with a general structure of an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a chemically variable “R” group covalently joined by a carbon. Typically, there are twenty different R-groups, resulting in twenty commonly seen amino acids.
6
Q
Amphipathic
A
A property of being both hydrophobic and hydrophilic. An amphipathic molecule has one end with some charge character, and the other end lacking charge.
7
Q
Anabolism
A
The general process of of joining monomers to form a polymer.
8
Q
Biomolecule
A
Molecules found in living organisms
9
Q
Carbohydrate
A
A type of biomolecule that generally have a basic structural formula that is written as C(H20)n.
10
Q
Catabolism
A
The general process of breaking down into its monomers.
11
Q
Cellulose
A
A type of carbohydrates used as structural molecules.
12
Q
Chitin
A
A type of carbohydrates used for structural purposes in some animals and fungi.
13
Q
Cohesion
A
A physical property of particles or molecules of the same substance sticking together. For example, liquid water molecules being stuck together via H-bonding give it cohesion.
14
Q
Condensation synthesis (dehydration synthesis)
A
The process in which a hydroxide (OH) is removed from one molecule and a hydrogen (H) is removed from the adjacent combining molecule.
15
Q
Covalent bond
A
Bonds that involve the sharing of electrons.
16
Q
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
A
A type of nucleic acids comprised of DNA nucleotides that have deoxyribose as their sugar and one nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine). DNA usually exists as paired strands, with the two sides held together by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases (cytosine binds to guanine, and thymine to adenine).
17
Q
Electron
A
A negatively charged part of an atom.
18
Q
Electronegative
A
Electronegative elements tend to pull electrons close to them when forming covalent bonds with other elements.
19
Q
Enzyme
A
A type of proteins that accelerate chemical reactions.
20
Q
Glycogen
A
A type of a polymer of glucose monomers used by animals to store surplus sugar in their livers.
21
Q
Heat of vaporization
A
The specific amount of heat or energy required to vaporize a liquid at a constant temperature.
22
Q
Hydrogen bond
A
The electrostatic attraction formed between the partial positive charge of a hydrogen (due to it being covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom such as nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine) and the partial negative charge of another highly electronegative atom nearby.
23
Q
Hydrolysis
A
A type of catabolism whereby a polymer is broken down by the addition of water.
24
Q
Hydrophilic
A
Compounds that dissolve readily in water.
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Hydrophobic
Compounds that do not interact with water.
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Inorganic compound
Compound that does not contain carbon.
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Lipid
An assortment of diverse non-polymer molecules that share a common trait of being hydrophobic. Their main biological functions include energy storage (e.g., fats), main structural components of cell membranes (e.g., phospholipids and cholesterol), and hormones and other cell signaling molecules (e.g., estrogen and testosterone).
28
Macromolecule
Large organic compounds. Some examples are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
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Monosaccharides
The basic monomeric units of carbohydrates also called the simple sugars.
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Disaccharides
Sugars formed by a condensation reaction between two monosaccharides.
31
Polysaccharides
Sugars consist of up to several thousand monomers of simple sugars formed via additional condensation reactions. The type of polysaccharide is determined by the number, type, and arrangement of its monomers.
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Nitrogenous base
A ringed structure consisting of nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen.
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Nucleic acid
Organic compounds that make up RNA and DNA.
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Organic compound
Compound that contains carbon and is prevalent in living systems.
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Phospholipid
An important amphipathic component of phospholipid bilayer of cell membranes that have only two fatty acids molecules, and a glycerol joined to a phosphate group.
36
Polar
State of having different electrical properties on opposite ends.
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Polypeptide
A polymer (chain) of amino acids with a particular order of amino acids determined by a specific gene.
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Proteins
Polymers of amino acids that are functionally and structurally diverse. Protein consist of one or more polypeptide chains arranged in a specific conformation.
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Primary structure
The sequence of amino acids in a protein
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Secondary structure
Regions of the molecule that are coiled ( helices) or folded ( pleated sheets).
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Tertiary structure
The overall shape of the protein due to interactions between the side chains (R groups) of the amino acids.
42
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
A type of nucleic acid comprised of RNA nucleotides that have ribose as their sugar and one nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or uracil). RNA is typically a single-stranded molecule.
43
Saturated fat
A type of fats that does not have double bonds in their hydrocarbon chains because their carbon is bound to two other carbons and two hydrogens. Their chains are straight and therefore can be organized into more tightly packed arrangement. It is usually in a solid state at room temperature.
44
Solvent
A material capable of dissolving many compounds.
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Specific heat
The specific amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a substance.
46
Starch
A type of carbohydrates that is a glucose polymer used by plants to store surplus sugar.
47
Steriod
A type of lipids characterized by a four-fused ring structure including cholesterol and certain hormones (e.g., estrogen and testosterone) produced from cholesterol.
48
Surface tension
Resistance to disruption at the surface.
49
Triacylglycerol
Dietary fats which are formed when three fatty acid molecules and one glycerol molecule join via condensation synthesis.
50
Unsaturated fat
A type of fats that have double bonds along their lengths, and therefore have kinks and cannot be tightly packed. It is usually in a liquid state at room temperature.
51
Valence
Relating to or denoting electrons – in an element’s outermost orbital – involved in or available for chemical bond formation.
52
Archaea
One of three major domains that contains more simple cells (prokaryotes)
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Autotroph
An organism capable of making its own food from inorganic sulfur and iron compounds.
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Bacteria
One of three major domains that contains more simple cells (prokaryotes)
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Carbon-14 dating (radiocarbon dating)
A common radiometric dating using carbon-14 (C14).
56
Continental drift
A phenomenon of the constant rearrangement due to the movement of Earth’s crust.
57
Dendrochronology
A type of absolute dating technique that relies on the fact that trees have annual growth rings that reflect the age of the tree (one ring is produced each year).
58
Eukarya
One of three major domains that contains complex cells with a nucleus and an array of organelles that perform different functions within the cell (eukaryotes).
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Eukaryote
Member of the Eukarya that have complex cells with a nucleus and an array of organelles that perform different functions within the cell.
60
Fossil
Preserved remnants of organisms (e.g., bones and teeth) or whole organisms embedded in amber, acid bogs and tar pits, or anywhere bacteria can’t decompose a dead body. Fossils can be found in other forms such as an animal’s footprint.
61
Geological time scale
A classification of different periods in Earth’s history that is used to divide fossils into age groups. Four great eras of the geological time scale are Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras.
62
Heterotroph
An organism unable to make its own food, and therefore must consume organic molecules to gain energy.
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Half-life
A radioisotope’s half-life is the amount of time it takes for one-half of the parental atom population to decay into daughter atoms.
64
Isomer
Isomers are compounds with the same formula, but each of them have a different arrangement of atoms in the molecule and different properties.
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Isotope
Isotopes of an element have the equal numbers of protons, but different numbers of neutrons. Different isotopes have different, but predictable stabilities. Radioactive isotopes’ nuclei decay at predictable rates (unique for each isotope) and give off energy and atomic particles.
66
Oxidize
To remove one or more electrons from an atom, ion, or molecule
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Pangaea
The supercontinent from about 250 million years ago where all of the landmasses were joined. Pangaea did not start to break apart until about 180 million years ago.
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Plate tectonics
Movement of large plates of Earth’s crust due to activity at spreading centers and subduction zones.
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Prokaryote
Any of the typically unicellular microorganisms that lack a distinct nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
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Radiocarbon dating (carbon-14 dating)
A common radiometric dating using carbon-14 (C14).
71
Radiometric dating
A type of absolute dating process in which several elements with radioactive isotopes that decay at known rates are used to date various rocks including those containing fossils.
72
Reduction
A chemical reaction that involves the gaining of electrons and therefore lowering the oxidation state of the element that gains electrons.
73
Sedimentary rock
Sedimentary rock is formed by layers of minerals that settle out of water build up and packed over time and is the best source of fossils. Each stratum, or layer, of sedimentary rock represents a particular period in Earth’s history and is characterized by a collection of fossils of organisms that lived at that time.
74
Archaea
One of three major domains that contains more simple cells (prokaryotes). Archaea have introns in some of their genes and unique lipids in their cell membrane, but not peptidoglycan.
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Bacillus (pl. bacilli)
Prokaryote cells in rod shape.
76
Binary fission
A type of asexual reproduction cell division in which a prokaryotic chromosome replicates and the mother cell pinches in half to form two new daughter cells.
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Coccus (pl. cocci)
Prokaryote cells in spherical shape.
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Conjugation
A way that genetic material can be moved between bacteria via direct transfer of genetic material between two living prokaryotic cells physically joined together.
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Eukarya
One of three major domains that contains complex cells with a nucleus and an array of organelles that perform different functions within the cell (eukaryotes).
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Eukaryote
An organism with membrane-bound nuclei and organelles.
81
Exon
A a segment of a DNA or RNA molecule containing information that codes for a protein or peptide sequence.
82
Extremophile
Organisms that live in extreme environments (e.g., hot springs, salt ponds, arctic ice, deep oil wells, acidic ponds that form near mines, and hydrothermal vents).
83
F factor
Fertility factor plasmid. When a cell has F factor plasmid, it is said to be F+ and is “contagious” (via conjugation) and also heritable (via conjugation).
84
Horizontal gene transfer
the movement of genetic material between members of a population (as distinguished from vertical gene transfer which is the transfer of genetic material between generations).
85
Intron
Intervening or non-coding sequences of DNA that are found in some archaea genes and the genes of eukaryotes.
86
LUCA
Last Universal Common Ancestor
87
Nucleoid
A region in prokaryote cells that contains all or most of the genetic material.
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Pathogenic
Harmful and causing disease.
89
Peptidoglycan
A polymer of sugars and amino acids that is unique to the bacteria.
90
Phage
Virus that infects bacteria functions.
91
Pilus (pl. pili)
An appendage used by a “male” bacteria to directly transfer genetic material to a “female” bacteria during conjugation.
92
Plasmid
A small ring of ring of extrachromosomal DNA often found in prokaryotes and a a few eukaryotes.
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Prokaryote
An organism without membrane-bound nuclei. Some prokaryotes have very elaborate internal membranes. They generally have less subcellular specialization and smaller in size than eukaryotes.
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Spirillum (pl. spirilla)
Prokaryote cells in helical shape.
95
Transduction
A way that genetic material can be moved between bacteria via bacteriophages infecting bacteria.
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Transformation
A way that genetic material can be moved between bacteria via acquisition of foreign DNA from surrounding environment.
97
Bioremediation
A process of using various species of bacteria for the removal of toxins form the environment.
98
Capsule
Many bacteria have an additional layer outside the cell wall that is made of sticky substances made and secreted by bacteria. Capsules not only help bacteria adhere to surfaces or to each other but also provide an additional layer of protection to the encapsulated organism.
99
Cell wall
A wall like cellular structure involved in maintaining cell shape and protection. Different organisms have different cell wall compositions and structures.
100
Chemoautotroph
An organism that can obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic substances and needs only carbon dioxide as a carbon source.
101
Chemoheterotroph
An organism that obtains energy and carbon from ingesting organic molecules.
102
Endospore
A thickly coated, resistant cell that can be formed within some bacteria under harsh conditions for survival.
103
Endotoxin
A toxic component of the outer membrane of certain gram-negative bacteria that is released only when the bacteria die.
104
Exotoxin
A toxic protein that is secreted by a prokaryote or other pathogen and that produces specific symptoms, even if the pathogen is no longer present.
105
Gram-positive
Bacteria with less complex cell walls that contain a lot of peptidoglycan.
106
Gram-negative
Bacteria with more complex cell walls that contain less peptidoglycan. Gram-negative bacteria have an additional outer cell membrane with lipopolysaccharides, and the presence of this membrane renders a gram-negative bacterial infection be generally far more severe than a gram-positive infection.
107
Gram’s stain
A staining technique used to analyze the amount of peptidoglycan in the cell walls of the unknown bacteria.
108
Lipopolysaccharide
Molecules attached to an additional outer membrane unique to the gram-negative bacteria. Some lipopolysaccharides are toxic and counteract the natural defenses of the host organisms.
109
Peptidoglycan
A polymer of sugars and amino acids that is unique to the bacteria.
110
Photoautotroph
An organism that harnesses light energy to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide.
111
Photoheterotroph
An organism that uses light to generate ATP but must obtain carbon in organic form.
112
Plasma membrane
A selectively permeable phospholipid bilayer membrane that encase the cell.
113
Sporulation
The formation of endospores.
114
Taxis
An oriented movement toward or away from a stimulus.
115
Symbiosis
The state of any two species having an extended and intimate association
116
Host
the larger of two species
117
microsymbiont
the smaller of the two species
118
mutualism
derive mutual benefit from the association
119
Parasitism
one member of the symbiosis derives benefit at the expense of the other
120
commensalism
re neither of benefit nor harm to both species
121
opportunistic infection
where a normally commensalistic bacteria becomes pathogenic in response to a changed environment (usually a weakened immune system).
122
Exotoxins
proteins secreted by prokaryotes
123
Endotoxins
surface protein components of the outer cell membrane in some gram-negative bacteria
124
microbiome
small area for organisms to thrive. Each person had about 1000 different strains of bacteria living on or in their bodies
125
Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen can only be transformed into a biologically usable state (i.e., "fixed") by certain nitrogen-fixing bacteria
126
nitrogen cycle
essential for all life on the planet.
127
nodule formation
Once bacteria reach the root, a developmental change is induced in the root
128
anaerobic
don't require oxygen
129
aerobic
require oxygen
130
Obligate aerobes
require oxygen
131
obligate anaerobes
no need for oxygen. May even be poisoned by oxygen.
132
Facultative anaerobes
Alternate their oxygen requirement. They can use oxygen if it is present, but they can also function in an anaerobic environment.
