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A Level Economics > Tutor2u Glossary Theme 2 > Flashcards

Tutor2u Glossary Theme 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Big Mac Index

2.1 - Economic growth

A

The Big Mac index is a way of measuring Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) between different countries. By converting the average national Big Mac prices to U.S. dollars (S) the same goods can be informally compared. This can tell us something about whether a currency is under or overvalued in foreign exchange markets.

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2
Q

BRICS economies

2.1 - Economic growth

A

The BRICS grouping – Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa –short-hand for the rise of emerging markets. The BRICs have a bigger share of world trade than the USA.

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3
Q

Constant prices

2.1 - Economic growth

A

Constant prices tell us that the data has been inflation adjusted.

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4
Q

Economic cycle

2.1 - Economic growth

A

Variations in the annual rate of growth of real national output (GDP) over time

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5
Q

Economic development

2.1 - Economic growth

A

Long run improvements in broad measures of income per capita, education and health outcomes and reductions in extreme poverty, hardship and inequality.

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6
Q

Economic growth

2.1 - Economic growth

A

An increase in the real value of goods and services produced as measured by the annual % change in real GDP. Also, a long-run increase in a country’s productive capacity.

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7
Q

Economic shocks

2.1 - Economic growth

A

Unpredictable events such as volatile global prices for oil, gas and foodstuffs.

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8
Q

Economic stability

2.1 - Economic growth

A

When growth, prices and unemployment do not change much from one year to another.

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9
Q

Emerging markets

2.1 - Economic growth

A

Term commonly used to describe the financial markets of developing countries.

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10
Q

Full capacity output

2.1 - Economic growth

A

Level of GDP where all available factor inputs are fully employed.

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11
Q

Globalisation

2.1 - Economic growth

A

A process in which countries have become increasingly integrated and inter-dependent.

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12
Q

GNI

2.1 - Economic growth

A

Income generated from resources owned by inhabitants and businesses of a country

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13
Q

Green GDP

2.1 - Economic growth

A

A popular term for environmentally adjusted gross domestic product.

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14
Q

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

2.1 - Economic growth

A

Total monetary value of output, spending and factor incomes generated within the geographical boundaries of a country in a given time period.

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15
Q

Gross Domestic Product per capita

2.1 - Economic growth

A

National income per head of population, used as a baseline measure of living standards, measured by total GDP/resident population.

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16
Q

Human Development Index

2.1 - Economic growth

A

An index used to assess comparative levels of development in countries, quantified in terms of literacy, life expectancy and purchasing power as measured by real national income per capita (PPP adjusted).

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17
Q

Infrastructure

2.1 - Economic growth

A

The transport links, communications networks, sewage systems, energy plants and other facilities essential for the efficient functioning of a country and its economy.

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18
Q

Lagging indicators

2.1 - Economic growth

A

Indicators which tend to follow economic cycles e.g. unemployment.

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19
Q

Leading indicators

2.1 - Economic growth

A

Indicators which predict future economic trends e.g. consumer confidence.

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20
Q

Macroeconomic performance

2.1 - Economic growth

A

The overall performance measured by changes in output, investment, prices, jobs, trade and living standards and also the distribution of income and wealth.

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21
Q

Manufacturing

2.1 - Economic growth

A

Manufacturing is one of the production industries, which also include mining, electricity, water & waste management and oil & gas extraction. In 2019, the UK manufacturing sector accounted for 2.7 million jobs,11% of total UK GDP.

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22
Q

National happiness

2.1 - Economic growth

A

Societal and personal well-being looking beyond what an economy produces, to areas such as health, relationships, education and skills, housing quality, finances and the environment.

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23
Q

National income

2.1 - Economic growth

A

The total income earned by all factors of production in an economy in a given time frame.

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24
Q

Nominal GDP

2.1 - Economic growth

A

Monetary value of all goods and services produced expressed at current prices (i.e. unadjusted for the effects of inflation).

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25
Q

Nominal income

2.1 - Economic growth

A

The level of income in a given time period (e.g. a year) which is unadjusted for the effects of inflation, also known as money income.

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26
Q

Per capita incomes

2.1 - Economic growth

A

Income per head of the population – a measure of average living standards e.g. Gross national income per capita = GNI/total population.

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27
Q

Purchasing power

2.1 - Economic growth

A

The buying power of a unit of currency. It is inversely related to the rate of inflation.

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28
Q

Purchasing power parity

2.1 - Economic growth

A

PPP is an economic theory that compares different countries’ currencies through a “basket of goods” approach. According to this concept, two currencies are in equilibrium—known as the currencies being at par—when a basket of goods is priced the same in both countries, taking into account the exchange rates. Your purchasing power is the same in this situation.

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29
Q

Real disposable income

2.1 - Economic growth

A

Income after taxes and welfare benefits, adjusted for the effects of inflation.

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30
Q

Real GDP

2.1 - Economic growth

A

Nominal GDP adjusted for price changes, expressed at constant prices.

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31
Q

Real income

2.1 - Economic growth

A

Nominal income adjusted for price changes, expressed at constant prices.

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32
Q

Real income per capita

2.1 - Economic growth

A

Real value of household income per head of population = real GDP divided by the resident population.

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33
Q

Service industries

2.1 - Economic growth

A

The service industries include the retail sector, the financial sector, the public sector, business administration and cultural activities. In 2019, the service industries accounted for 80% of total UK GDP and accounted for 83% of jobs.

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34
Q

Consumer price index (CPI)

2.1.2 - Inflation

A

The CPI is the UK government’s preferred measure of inflation, it measures changes in the average cost of living for a representative household and is a weighted price index.

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35
Q

Cost push inflation

2.1.2 - Inflation

A

Inflation caused by rising costs of production either domestically or from importing raw materials at higher prices due to exchange rate depreciation.

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36
Q

CPIH inflation

2.1.2 - Inflation

A

CPIH is a measure of UK inflation introduced in 2017 that includes owner occupiers’ housing costs). These are the costs of housing services associated with owning, maintaining and living in one’s own home.

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37
Q

Creeping inflation

2.1.2 - Inflation

A

Small rises in the general price level over a long period, low positive rate of inflation.

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38
Q

Deflation

2.1.2 - Inflation

A

A persistent fall in the general price level of goods and services shown by a negative rate of inflation.

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39
Q

Demand pull inflation

2.1.2 - Inflation

A

Caused by an excess of AD over AS. “Too much money chasing too few goods”.

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40
Q

Disinflation

2.1.2 - Inflation

A

A fall in the rate of inflation but not sufficient to bring about deflation. Prices are still rising but at a slower rate, for example a drop in the annual inflation rate from 6% to 2%.

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41
Q

Inflation

2.1.2 - Inflation

A

A sustained increase in the general price level for goods and services.

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42
Q

Inflation expectations

2.1.2 - Inflation

A

The rate of increase of consumer prices expected by consumers. Expectations can then influence spending and saving decisions and also wage bargaining.

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43
Q

Inflation target

2.1.2 - Inflation

A

The Bank of England has a CPI inflation target, which is currently 2 per cent.

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44
Q

Inflationary pressures

2.1.2 - Inflation

A

Demand and supply-side pressures that can cause a rise in the general price level. Demand-pull inflationary pressure is greatest when actual GDP exceeds potential GDP causing a positive output gap. Cost-push inflationary pressure can arise from increases in unit wage costs, rising import prices and an increase in the prices of raw materials, fuel and components used in production.

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45
Q

Money supply

2.1.2 - Inflation

A

The entire quantity of a country’s commercial bills, coins, loans and credit

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46
Q

Price stability

2.1.2 - Inflation

A

Occurs when there is a low positive inflation rate of between 1-3% and price changes that do occur have little impact on day-to-day decisions of people and businesses

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47
Q

Purchasing power

2.1.2 - Inflation

A

The buying power of a unit of currency. It is inversely related to the rate of inflation.

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48
Q

Relative deflation

2.1.2 - Inflation

A

An economy with an inflation rate which is lower than comparable economies. Over time, a low relative rate of inflation can lead to improved price competitiveness.

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49
Q

Stagflation

2.1.2 - Inflation

A

A combination of slow growth and rising inflation. The most notable recent period of stagflation occurred during the 1970s, when world oil prices rose dramatically, and UK inflation rose at one point to nearly 30 per cent.

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50
Q

Wage price spiral

2.1.2 - Inflation

A

Where workers bid for higher wages because they have seen their real income eroded by rising prices. This can lead to a further burst of cost-push inflation

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51
Q

Weights

2.1.2 - Inflation

A

Weights are used when calculating a weighted consumer price index. In the UK for example, the weights used are taken from the spending patterns revealed by data from the Family Expenditure Survey. Heavily weighted items such as transport costs, fuel bills and prices of foodstuffs have a bigger impact on the overall measure of CPI inflation

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52
Q

Claimant Count

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

The number of people claiming unemployment-related benefits.

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53
Q

Cyclical unemployment

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

Unemployment caused by a persistent lack of aggregate demand for goods and services, where national output < potential output leading to a negative output gap.

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54
Q

Demand deficient unemployment

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

Also known as cyclical unemployment, occurs when planned demand is insufficient to generate a full-employment level of real national output, this is most likely to happen in a slowdown or recession.

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55
Q

Discouraged workers

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

People often out of work for a long time who give up on job search and who become economically inactive in the labour market. A cause of hidden unemployment.

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56
Q

Disguised unemployment

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

Also known as hidden unemployment, where part of the labour force is either left without work or is working in a redundant manner where worker productivity is essentially zero.

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57
Q

Economically active

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

Those who are unemployed and actively seeking employment.

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58
Q

Economically inactive

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

Those who are of working age but are neither in work nor actively seeking work.

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59
Q

Frictional unemployment

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

Those moving between jobs. Typically lasts for up to six months.

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60
Q

Full employment

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

When there enough job vacancies for all the unemployed to take work.

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61
Q

Human capital

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

Human capital is a measure of individuals’ skills, knowledge, abilities, social attributes, personalities and health attributes. These factors enable individuals to work, and therefore produce something of economic value.

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62
Q

Inactivity

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

The state of not producing an economic output.

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63
Q

International Labour Organisation (ILO)

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

The ILO is a United Nations agency whose mandate is to advance social justice and promote decent work by setting international labour standards.

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64
Q

Job search

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

Process by which workers find appropriate jobs given their tastes and skills.

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65
Q

Labour Force Survey

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

The Labour Force Survey (LFS) is a study of the employment circumstances of the UK population. It is the largest household study in the UK and provides the official measures of employment and unemployment.

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66
Q

Labour shortages

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

When businesses find it difficult to recruit the skilled workers they need.

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67
Q

Labour supply

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

The number of people able, available and willing to work at prevailing wage rates.

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68
Q

Migration

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

The movement of people from one geographical location to another with the intention of settling in the new region.

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69
Q

Natural rate of unemployment

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

The equilibrium rate of unemployment = frictional + structural unemployment.

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70
Q

NEETs

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

NEET’ stands for young people aged 16-24 Not in Education, Employment or Training (NEET). 788,000 people aged 16-24 in the UK were NEETs in 2019, representing 11.3% of the age group.

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71
Q

Net inward migration

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

When the number of migrants coming into a country is higher than those leaving in a given time period – usually a year.

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72
Q

Real wage

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

Nominal wage adjusted for the effects of inflation

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73
Q

Redundancy

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

Making someone redundant is to end their paid employment

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74
Q

Seasonal unemployment

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

This occurs when people are unemployed at particular times of the year when demand for labour is lower than usual.

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75
Q

Structural unemployment

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

Unemployment that results from the decline in an industry which leaves people unemployed because they do not have the skills needed by industries that are growing.

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76
Q

Tight labour market

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

When demand for labour is high and there are shortages of labour. Businesses may have to offer higher wages to attract and keep the workers they need.

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77
Q

Under-employment

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

Workers are underemployed when they are willing to supply more hours of work than their employers are prepared to offer.

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78
Q

Unemployment rate

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

The unemployment rate is the proportion of the economically active population who are unemployed.

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79
Q

Unemployment trap

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

When the prospect of the loss of unemployment benefits dissuades those without work from taking a new job – creates a disincentives problem.

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80
Q

Unit wage costs

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

Labour costs per unit of output.

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81
Q

Zero Hours Contract

2.1.3 - Employment and unemployment

A

An employment contract under which the employee is not guaranteed work and is paid only for work carried out.

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82
Q

Balance of payments

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

A record of all financial transactions between an economy and the rest of the world.

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83
Q

Balance of trade

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

The difference between the value of country’s exports and imports of goods and services combined

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84
Q

Capital account

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

Formerly known as financial account, now a small section of the account which includes effects of debt forgiveness, sale/transfer of patents, copyrights, franchises, leases and other transferable contracts across borders

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85
Q

Current account

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

Measures the difference between money and credit going in and out of an economy (through exports, imports and income paid on assets both home and abroad).

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86
Q

Current account deficit

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

When net external trade and income is negative leading to a net outflow of demand from the circular flow

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87
Q

Current account surplus

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

When net external trade and income is positive, a net injection into the circular flow.

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88
Q

Cyclical trade deficit

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

A trade deficit that arises purely due to changes in the business cycle, for example many countries run a trade deficit when strong growth increases demand for imports.

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89
Q

Euro

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

The European single currency was created in 1999 and entered common ]circulation in 2002. As of 2019 there are 19 nations in the Euro Zone.

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90
Q

Exchange rate

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

Exchange rates are the price of one country’s’ currency in relation to another.

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91
Q

Export revenue

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

Sales from selling goods and services overseas, an injection of aggregate demand.

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92
Q

External competitiveness

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

External competitiveness is the ability of businesses to sell their goods and services at competitive prices in a foreign country / overseas market.

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93
Q

Hot Money

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

Money that flows freely and quickly around the world looking to earn the best rate of return. It might be invested in any asset whose value is expected to rise (e.g. property or shares) or placed in an account offering the best real rate of interest.

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94
Q

Net primary income

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

Part of the current account of the balance of payments, it measures the net flow of profits, interest and dividends from investments in other countries and net remittance flows from migrant workers.

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95
Q

Net secondary income

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

Part of the current account of the balance of payments, it includes overseas aid / debt relief, military grants and (for the UK) net payments to the European Union.

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96
Q

Net trade

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

The balance between the monetary value of exports and imports.

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97
Q

Overseas assets

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

Assets such as businesses, shares, property owned in overseas countries and which might generate a flow of primary income which is a credit item on the current account.

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98
Q

Protectionism

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

Restricting trade through tariffs and other forms of import controls such as quotas.

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99
Q

Purchasing power

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

The buying power of a unit of currency. It is inversely related to the rate of inflation

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100
Q

Remittances

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

Sending money to people in another country. For many lower-income nations, remittance income is now a big contribution to their Gross National Income (GNI).

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101
Q

Structural trade deficit

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

A trade deficit that arises due to supply-side weaknesses rather than a change in GDP or currency – usually caused by poor price and non-price competitiveness.

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102
Q

Trade deficit

2.1.4 - Balance of payments

A

A trade deficit occurs when a country imports a greater value of goods and services than it exports. A trade deficit as a net withdrawal from the circular flow of income.

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103
Q

Aggregate demand

2.2.1 - The characteristics of AD

A

Total amount of goods and services demanded in the economy at a given time and price level. It is the sum of consumption expenditure, investment expenditure, government expenditure and net exports

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104
Q

Animal spirits

2.2.1 - The characteristics of AD

A

The state of confidence or pessimism held by consumers and businesses.

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105
Q

Consumer confidence

2.2.2 - Consumption (C)

A

Expectations about the future including interest rates, incomes and jobs

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106
Q

Consumer durables

2.2.2 - Consumption (C)

A

Products such as washing machines or computer screens that are not used up immediately when consumed and which provide a flow of services over time.

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107
Q

Consumer spending

2.2.2 - Consumption (C)

A

Household spending on goods and services. In the UK, household consumption is the largest element of aggregate demand (GDP), accounting for 67% of the total in 2019.

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108
Q

Disposable income

2.2.2 - Consumption (C)

A

Gross income less income tax and national insurance contributions plus welfare benefits.

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109
Q

Household income

2.2.2 - Consumption (C)

A

The financial resources available to households to spend or save:
* Original income: Income from jobs, private pensions, interest from savings
* Gross income = original income + cash benefits
* Disposable income = gross income minus direct taxes
* Post-tax income = disposable income minus indirect taxes

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110
Q

Household wealth

2.2.2 - Consumption (C)

A

The monetary value of assets – including property, shares, savings, pension fund assets.

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111
Q

Income

2.2.2 - Consumption (C)

A

Income is a flow of money to factors of production such as wages and salaries paid to people in work, interest from savings and rental income from owning land/assets.

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112
Q

Interest rate

2.2.2 - Consumption (C)

A

An interest rate is the cost or price of borrowing, or the gain from lending, normally expressed as an annual percentage amount.

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113
Q

Negative equity

2.2.2 - Consumption (C)

A

When the value of an asset falls below the debt left to pay on that asset. Term is most commonly used in connection with property prices after a slump in house prices.

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114
Q

Pension Fund

2.2.2 - Consumption (C)

A

Fund that pools employees’ pension benefits and holds them so that they can be paid at retirement. The money is invested in stocks, bonds and other assets to boost returns and ensure that there are sufficient funds to be paid out.

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115
Q

Personal allowance

2.2.2 - Consumption (C)

A

The amount of income you can earn before you start paying income tax. It is £12,500 in 2019

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116
Q

Precautionary saving

2.2.2 - Consumption (C)

A

Saving because of fears of a loss of real income or rising unemployment.

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117
Q

Saving ratio

2.2.2 - Consumption (C)

A

The percentage of household disposable income that is saved rather than spent.

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118
Q

Unsecured credit

2.2.2 - Consumption (C)

A

Credit not secured by another asset – i.e. money borrowed on credit cards.

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119
Q

Wealth

2.2.2 - Consumption (C)

A

Wealth is a stock concept. Wealth can be held in different ways including savings held in commercial bank deposits, ownership of shares issued by stock-market listed companies and equity stakes in private businesses and ownership of property / real estate.

120
Q

Wealth effect

2.2.2 - Consumption (C)

A

The supposed link between changes in wealth and household spending.

121
Q

Access to credit

2.2.3 - Investment (I)

A

The willingness and ability of financial institutions to lend funds to producers and consumers.

122
Q

Animal spirits

2.2.3 - Investment (I)

A

The state of confidence or pessimism held by consumers and businesses.

123
Q

Business confidence

2.2.3 - Investment (I)

A

Expectations about the future of the economy – vital in influencing business decisions about how much to spend on new capital goods and employment intentions.

124
Q

Gross investment

2.2.3 - Investment (I)

A

Total investment calculated by adding new investment to replacement investment.

125
Q

Interest rate

2.2.3 - Investment (I)

A

An interest rate is the cost or price of borrowing, or the gain from lending, normally expressed as an annual percentage amount.

126
Q

Investment

2.2.3 - Investment (I)

A

Spending on capital goods including plant & machinery and infrastructure.

127
Q

Investment income

2.2.3 - Investment (I)

A

Interest, profits and dividends from assets owned and located overseas.

128
Q

Keynesian economics

2.2.3 - Investment (I)

A

The economics of John Maynard Keynes. The belief that the state can directly stimulate demand in a stagnating economy. For instance, by borrowing money to fund public works projects like new roads, housing, schools and hospitals

129
Q

Net investment

2.2.3 - Investment (I)

A

Total investment minus replacement investment

130
Q

Replacement investment

2.2.3 - Investment (I)

A

The purchase of capital goods by firms to replace existing, worn out capital. It does not add to the total capital stock of an economy.

131
Q

Fiscal policy

2.2.4 - Government Expenditure (G)

A

A government’s policy regarding taxation and public spending. It can be loose (with the emphasis on increased spending and lower tax revenue to boost economic activity, with the acceptance of a wider fiscal deficit) or tight (with the emphasis on cutting spending and raising extra tax revenue, resulting in a slower-growing economy.

132
Q

Government borrowing

2.2.4 - Government Expenditure (G)

A

The amount the government must borrow each year to finance their spending.

133
Q

Government debt

2.2.4 - Government Expenditure (G)

A

The total stock of unpaid debt issued by a government. A government will normally borrow money by issuing bonds or other securities

134
Q

Government spending

2.2.4 - Government Expenditure (G)

A

Spending by government on education, health care and defence & other public services.

135
Q

Trade cycle

2.2.4 - Government Expenditure (G)

A

A trade cycle refers to fluctuations in economic activities specially in employment, output and income, prices, profits etc.

136
Q

Exchange rate

2.2.5 - Net trade (X-M)

A

Exchange rates are the price of one country’s’ currency in relation to another.

137
Q

Net primary income

2.2.5 - Net trade (X-M)

A

Part of the current account of the balance of payments, it measures the net flow of profits, interest and dividends from investments in other countries and net remittance flows from migrant workers.

138
Q

Net secondary income

2.2.5 - Net trade (X-M)

A

Part of the current account of the balance of payments, it includes overseas aid / debt relief, military grants and (for the UK) net payments to the European Union.

139
Q

Net trade

2.2.5 - Net trade (X-M)

A

The balance between the monetary value of exports and imports.

140
Q

Protectionism

2.2.5 - Net trade (X-M)

A

Restricting trade through tariffs and other forms of import controls such as quotas

141
Q

Aggregate supply

2.3.1 - The characteristics of AS

A

Total planned output of goods and services in an economy at a given time and price level.

142
Q

Aggregate supply shock

2.3.1 - The characteristics of AS

A

Either an inflation shock or a shock to potential national output; adverse aggregate supply shocks of both types reduce real output and can increase the rate of inflation.

143
Q

Costs of production

2.3.2 - Short-run AS

A

Factor prices, including rent, wages and interest.

144
Q

Exchange rate

2.3.2 - Short-run AS

A

Exchange rates are the price of one country’s’ currency in relation to another.

145
Q

Classical LRAS

2.3.3 - Long-run AS

A

The Classical view is that LRAS is inelastic. This has important implications. The classical view suggests that real GDP is determined by supply-side factors – the level of investment, the level of capital and the productivity of labour etc. Classical economists suggest that in the long-term, an increase in aggregate demand (faster than growth in LRAS), will just cause inflation and will not increase real GDP.

146
Q

Competition Policy

2.3.3 - Long-run AS

A

Any policy which seeks to promote competition & efficiency in markets and industries.

147
Q

Demographic change

2.3.3 - Long-run AS

A

Any change in the population, for example in terms of average age, dependency ratios, life expectancy, family structures, birth rates etc.

148
Q

Innovation

2.3.3 - Long-run AS

A

The commercial development of exploiting new or improved goods and services.

149
Q

Invention

2.3.3 - Long-run AS

A

The creation of a new product, service or concept.

150
Q

Keynesian economics

2.3.3 - Long-run AS

A

The economics of John Maynard Keynes. The belief that the state can directly stimulate demand in a stagnating economy. For instance, by borrowing money to fund public works projects like new roads, housing, schools and hospitals

151
Q

Keynesian LRAS

2.3.3 - Long-run AS

A

The Keynesian LRAS assumes wages and prices are fixed until near full employment is reached. Whilst the economy has spare capacity, the LRAS is perfectly elastic, and only when near full employment is reached, does the price level start to rise. At full employment, the Keynesian LRAS becomes vertical as no further output can be produced.

152
Q

Keynesian unemployment

2.3.3 - Long-run AS

A

Unemployment caused by a lack of aggregate demand in the economy – a deficiency of private sector spending causes both output and employment to contract

153
Q

Long run aggregate supply (LRAS)

2.3.3 - Long-run AS

A

Long run aggregate supply is determined by the state of technology, productivity, factor mobility and incentives. The LRAS curve is assumed to be vertical (i.e. independent of prices) and represents the normal capacity level of output for the economy.

154
Q

Migration

2.3.3 - Long-run AS

A

The movement of people, especially workers, between countries.
* Immigration refers to people entering a country.
* Emigration refers to people leaving a country.
* Net migration refers to the difference between the number of people entering and leaving a country.

155
Q

Productivity

2.3.3 - Long-run AS

A

A measure of efficiency = output per unit of input or output per person employed.

156
Q

Circular flow of income

2.4.1 - National income

A

An economic model that shows flows of goods and services and factors of production between firms and households. The circular flow shows how national income or Gross Domestic Product is calculated.

157
Q

Income

2.4.1 - National income

A

Income represents a flow of earnings from using factors of production to generate an output of goods and services. For example, wages and salaries are a factor reward to labour and interest is the flow of income for the ownership of capital.

158
Q

Wealth

2.4.1 - National income

A

The value of a stock of assets such as housing, personal pensions, savings and many different forms of marketable (sellable) assets such as antiques.

159
Q

Injections

2.4.2 - Injections and withdrawals

A

njections are variables in an economy that add to the circular flow of income and include investment (I), government spending (G) and exports (X).

160
Q

Withdrawals

2.4.2 - Injections and withdrawals

A

Withdrawals are variables in an economy that remove money flows from the circular flow of income and include saving (S), government taxation (T) and imports (M).

161
Q

Aggregate demand

2.4.3 - Equilibrium levels of real national output

A

Total amount of goods and services demanded in the economy at a given time and price level. It is the sum of consumption expenditure, investment expenditure, government expenditure and net exports.

162
Q

Aggregate supply

2.4.3 - Equilibrium levels of real national output

A

Total planned output of goods and services in an economy at a given time and price level.

163
Q

Equilibrium national output

2.4.3 - Equilibrium levels of real national output

A

Equilibrium means ‘at rest’ or ‘a state of balance’ - i.e. a situation where there is no tendency for change. At this point aggregate demand is exactly equal to aggregate supply.

164
Q

Real national output

2.4.3 - Equilibrium levels of real national output

A

Nominal national output adjusted for price changes, expressed at constant prices.

165
Q

Marginal propensity to consume (MPC)

2.4.4 - The multiplier

A

The proportion of any change in income that is spent rather than saved.

166
Q

Marginal propensity to import (MPM)

2.4.4 - The multiplier

A

The change in total spending on imported products following a change in income. The higher is the marginal propensity to import, the greater is the outflow of extra income in the circular flow model. A high MPM reduces the size of the multiplier effect.

167
Q

Marginal propensity to save (MPS)

2.4.4 - The multiplier

A

The change in total savings arising from a small change in household disposable income. If income rises by £100 and £30 is saved, then the marginal propensity to save = 0.3 (i.e. the change in saving/change in income)

168
Q

Marginal propensity to tax (MPT)

2.4.4 - The multiplier

A

The change in taxation following a change in income.

169
Q

Marginal propensity to withdraw (MPW)

2.4.4 - The multiplier

A

The sum of the marginal propensity to save + marginal propensity to tax + the marginal propensity to import.

170
Q

Multiplier

2.4.4 - The multiplier

A

A calculation of the degree to which injections into the circular flow of income cause changes in final national income. Multiplier (k) = change in real GDP (Y)/change in injections (J). The formula used to calculate the size of any change in final national income that results from an increase in injections. The formula is 1/1-mpw where mpw is the marginal propensity to withdraw, or alternatively the formula 1/1-mpc can be used.

171
Q

Multiplier process

2.4.4 - The multiplier

A

A description of the multiplier effect which comes about because injections of new demand for goods and services into the circular flow of income stimulate further rounds of spending – in other words “one person’s spending is another’s income”. This can lead to a bigger eventual final effect on output and employment.

172
Q

Multiplier ratio

2.4.4 - The multiplier

A

This is the ratio of a change in equilibrium real income to the injection that has brought it about. For example if a £1m injection into the circular flow results in a £2.5m increase in national income, the value of the multiplier is 2.5.

173
Q

Actual growth

2.5.1 - Causes of growth

A

A rise in real GDP in a given time period. It is also known as short run growth and is depicted by the aggregate demand curve shifting to the right.

174
Q

Long run growth

2.5.1 - Causes of growth

A

The trend growth rate – mainly determined by changes in the stock of available factor inputs and also improvements in productivity. Trend growth is represented by a rightward shift in the LRAS (or PPF boundary).

175
Q

Net inward migration

2.5.1 - Causes of growth

A

When the number of migrants coming into a country is higher than those leaving in a given time period – usually a year.

176
Q

Output measure GDP

2.5.1 - Causes of growth

A

Value of the goods and services produced by all sectors of the economy; agriculture, manufacturing, energy, construction, the service sector and government.

177
Q

Potential growth

2.5.1 - Causes of growth

A

This is a rise in the productive potential or the capacity of the economy. It is not yet actual growth until AD rises to use up that extra capacity.

178
Q

Production

2.5.1 - Causes of growth

A

Value of output of goods and services e.g. measured by GDP or an index of production in specific industry.

179
Q

Productive potential

2.5.1 - Causes of growth

A

Productive capacity of the economy – boosted by high quality capital investment

180
Q

Productivity

2.5.1 - Causes of growth

A

How much output is produced for a given input (such as an hour of work

181
Q

Seasonal adjustment

2.5.1 - Causes of growth

A

Estimates in which the element of variability due to seasonal influences, which may distort the data, has been removed. Affects data such as unemployment, retail sales and output from highly seasonal industries

182
Q

Shocks

2.5.1 - Causes of growth

A

Unexpected events that can affect both aggregate demand and supply e.g. unexpected changes in world oil prices, currency volatility and the effects of political instability

183
Q

Short run economic growth

2.5.1 - Causes of growth

A

Short run growth is cyclical; the growth of real GDP is determined by aggregate demand (C+I+G+X-M) and also factors affecting short run aggregate supply (SRAS).

184
Q

Sustainable growth

2.5.1 - Causes of growth

A

Growth that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable growth can continue without damage to the environment, or the exhaustion of non renewable resources.

185
Q

Trend growth

2.5.1 - Causes of growth

A

The long run average growth rate – mainly determined by changes in the stock of available factor inputs and also improvements in productivity. Trend growth is represented by a rightward shift in the LRAS (or PPF boundary).

186
Q

Exogenous shock

2.5.1 - Causes of growth

A

An unexpected event beyond the control of the country’s officials that has a large negative impact on its economy.

187
Q

Negative output gap

2.5.2 - Output gaps

A

A negative output gap means that an economy has a large amount of spare productive capacity. When actual GDP is below estimated potential GDP.

188
Q

Output gap

2.5.2 - Output gaps

A

Difference between actual and potential national output. A negative output gap means that an economy has a large amount of spare productive capacity.

189
Q

Positive output gap

2.5.2 - Output gaps

A

A positive output gap means that an economy is working beyond its normal productive capacity, perhaps by workers working overtime and machines running long hours.

190
Q

Trend growth

2.5.2 - Output gaps

A

The long run average growth rate – mainly determined by changes in the stock of available factor inputs and also improvements in productivity. Trend growth is represented by a rightward shift in the LRAS (or PPF boundary).

191
Q

Boom

2.5.3 - Trade (business) cycle

A

A period of rapid economic expansion resulting in higher GDP, lower unemployment, rising inflation rates and rising asset prices.

192
Q

Depression

2.5.3 - Trade (business) cycle

A

Used to describe a severe recession which may become a prolonged downturn and where a nation’s real GDP falls by at least 10 per cent.

193
Q

Double dip recession

2.5.3 - Trade (business) cycle

A

When an economy goes into recession twice without a full recovery in between.

194
Q

Expectations

2.5.3 - Trade (business) cycle

A

How we expect the future to unfold – necessarily affected by the degree of uncertainty.

195
Q

Forecast

2.5.3 - Trade (business) cycle

A

A prediction made about the likely future performance of an economy.

196
Q

Hysteresis

2.5.3 - Trade (business) cycle

A

When a sustained period of low aggregate demand can lead to permanent damage to the supply side of the economy, for example because of high long-term unemployment.

197
Q

Peak

2.5.3 - Trade (business) cycle

A

The high point of the economic cycle beyond which a recession starts.

198
Q

Recession

2.5.3 - Trade (business) cycle

A

A period of at least six months when real GDP decline. Or defined as a broadly-based contraction in output, employment, investment and confidence

199
Q

Recovery

2.5.3 - Trade (business) cycle

A

A phase of the economic cycle, after a recession/depression, during which real GDP starts to increase and unemployment begins to fall.

200
Q

Shocks

2.5.3 - Trade (business) cycle

A

Unexpected events that can affect both aggregate demand and supply e.g. unexpected changes in world oil prices, currency volatility and the effects of political instability.

201
Q

Slowdown

2.5.3 - Trade (business) cycle

A

A fall in the rate of growth of an economy but not a full-scale recession.

202
Q

Slump

2.5.3 - Trade (business) cycle

A

A sustained decrease in real GDP and a persistent rise in unemployment

203
Q

Soft landing

2.5.3 - Trade (business) cycle

A

A slowdown in economic activity but which does not result in a recession.

204
Q

Trade cycle

2.5.3 - Trade (business) cycle

A

A trade cycle refers to fluctuations in economic activities specially in employment, output and income, prices, profits etc.

205
Q

Trough

2.5.3 - Trade (business) cycle

A

The low point of the economic cycle beyond which a recovery starts.

206
Q

Distribution of income

2.5.4 - The impact of growth

A

The distribution of income is how incomes are spread across households within the population. A common measure of income inequality is the Gini Coefficient.

207
Q

Economic development

2.5.4 - The impact of growth

A

Long run improvements in broad measures of income per capita, education and health outcomes and reductions in extreme poverty, hardship and inequality.

208
Q

Foreign direct investment

2.5.4 - The impact of growth

A

Inflows of capital from foreign multinationals (MNCs) including takeovers and tangible investment in new factories and technology

209
Q

Inflation

2.5.4 - The impact of growth

A

A sustained increase in the general price level for goods and services.

210
Q

Non-inflationary growth

2.5.4 - The impact of growth

A

Sustained growth of real national output whilst maintaining price stability.

211
Q

Per capita incomes

2.5.4 - The impact of growth

A

Income per head of the population – a measure of average living standards e.g. Gross national income per capita = GNI/total population.

212
Q

Balanced growth

2.6.1 - Possible macroeconomic objectives

A

In macroeconomics, balanced growth occurs when output and the capital stock grow at the same rate. Also refers to balanced expansion of components of aggregate demand.

213
Q

Budget balance

2.6.1 - Possible macroeconomic objectives

A

The annual balance between government spending and tax revenues. When G>T, there is a budget deficit and when G<T, there is a budget surplus.

214
Q

Current account balance

2.6.1 - Possible macroeconomic objectives

A

When the outflows on the current account are exactly equal to the inflows.

215
Q

Environmental economics

2.6.1 - Possible macroeconomic objectives

A

Environmental economics studies the impact of environmental policies and devises solutions to problems resulting from them. The approach can either be prescriptive or incentive-based.

216
Q

Income distribution

2.6.1 - Possible macroeconomic objectives

A

Income distribution is how income is divided up among all the citizens in a country. The most common measure of income distribution is the Gini Coefficient.

217
Q

Income inequality

2.6.1 - Possible macroeconomic objectives

A

The degree to which income is distributed unequally in an economy or population; income inequality can be illustrated using a Lorenz Curve and measured using the Gini coefficient.

218
Q

Price stability

2.6.1 - Possible macroeconomic objectives

A

Occurs when there is a low positive inflation rate of between 1-3% and price changes that do occur have little impact on day-to-day decisions of people and businesses.

219
Q

Sustainable growth

2.6.1 - Possible macroeconomic objectives

A

Growth that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable growth can continue without damage to the environment, or the exhaustion of non renewable resources.

220
Q

Unemployment rate

2.6.1 - Possible macroeconomic objectives.

A

The unemployment rate is the proportion of the economically active population who are unemployed.

221
Q

Austerity

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Economic policy aimed at reducing a government’s deficit (or borrowing). Austerity can be achieved through increases in government revenues -primarily via tax rises - and/or a reduction in government spending or future spending commitments.

222
Q

Automatic stabilisers

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Automatic fiscal changes as the economy moves through stages of the business cycle – e.g. a fall in tax revenues from the circular flow in a recession.

223
Q

Budget balance

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

The annual balance between government spending and tax revenues. When G>T, there is a budget deficit and when G<T, there is a budget surplus.

224
Q

Budget deficit

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Occurs when government spending is greater than tax revenues. Reducing the deficit can be achieved by tax increases or cuts in government spending or a period of GDP growth which brings about a rise in direct and indirect tax revenues.

225
Q

Budget surplus

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Occurs when tax revenues exceed government spending. A surplus can be used to repay some of the national debt.

226
Q

Central bank policy interest rate

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Also known as the monetary policy rate, it is the official lending rate for loans set by a nation’s central bank e.g. the Bank of England or the European Central Bank.

227
Q

Corporation Tax

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

A tax on the profits made by companies, in the UK the main rate of corporation tax is 19% and is expected to fall to 18% by 2020.

228
Q

Cyclical budget (fiscal) deficit

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

The size of the deficit is influenced by the state of the economy: in a boom, tax receipts are relatively high and spending on unemployment benefit is low.

229
Q

Discretionary fiscal policy

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Deliberate attempts to affect the level and growth of aggregate demand using changes in government spending, direct and indirect taxation and borrowing.

230
Q

Direct taxation

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Taxes levied on streams of income and profits such as income tax and corporation tax.

231
Q

Exchange rate

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Exchange rates are the price of one country’s’ currency in relation to another.

232
Q

Exchange rate index

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

The trade-weighted external value of a currency.

233
Q

Excise duties

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Indirect taxes levied on specific goods, typically alcoholic beverages, tobacco and fuels.

234
Q

Expansionary monetary policy

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

A relaxation of monetary policy means an attempt to use an expansionary monetary policy to boost aggregate demand, output and jobs – includes lower interest rates.

235
Q

Expenditure-switching policies

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Policies that are designed to ‘switch’ expenditure from imports to domestically produced goods in order to improve the balance of payments and stimulate GDP

236
Q

Fine-tuning

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Changes in monetary policy or fiscal policy designed to gradually manage the level of aggregate demand and prices e.g. small changes in policy interest rates / taxation.

237
Q

Fiscal austerity or fiscal tightening

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Fiscal austerity refers to decisions by a government to reduce the amount of borrowing (i.e. cut the size of a fiscal deficit) over time.

238
Q

Fiscal deficit

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

When government expenditure is higher than the revenue from taxes in a given year

239
Q

Fiscal policy

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

A government’s policy regarding taxation and public spending. It can be loose (with the emphasis on increased spending and lower tax revenue to boost economic activity, with the acceptance of a wider fiscal deficit) or tight (with the emphasis on cutting spending and raising extra tax revenue, resulting in a slower-growing economy.

240
Q

Fiscal stability

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Many governments seek to maintain a degree of balance between tax revenues and public sector spending. A balanced budget is one in which spending equal revenue.

241
Q

Fiscal stimulus

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Government measures, normally involving increased public spending and lower direct and/or indirect taxation, aimed at giving a positive jolt to economic activity.

242
Q

Global financial crisis

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

A severe world-wide economic financial crisis beginning with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on 15/9/2008 and resulting in bail outs and other fiscal measures to prevent the collapse of the world financial system. The crisis caused a global economic downturn and the greatest financial crisis since the Great Depression of the 1930s.

243
Q

Government spending

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Spending by government on education, health care and defence & other public services.

244
Q

Household benefits cap

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Welfare reform introduced by the UK government in 2013 – which limits total benefits at £500 per week for a family and £350 per week for a single person with no children.

245
Q

Import Tariff

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

A tax on imports that may be ad valorem (%) or a specific tax (a set amount per unit imported).

246
Q

Indirect taxes

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Taxes on spending. Examples include excise duties on fuel, cigarettes and alcohol and Value Added Tax (VAT) on many different goods and services. Producers may be able to pass on an indirect tax – depending on price elasticity of demand and supply

247
Q

Inflation target

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

The Bank of England has a CPI inflation target, which is currently 2 per cent.

248
Q

Interest rate

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

An interest rate is the cost or price of borrowing, or the gain from lending, normally expressed as an annual percentage amount.

249
Q

Marginal rate of tax (MRT)

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

The rate of tax on the next unit (£1) of income earned. In the UK for example, the basic rate of income tax is 20% on earned income up to the higher tax rate income limit.

250
Q

Monetary Policy

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Central bank policies govern the supply of money and the interest rate in an economy in order to influence output, employment and prices. In the UK the policy is administered by the Bank of England.

251
Q

Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Bank of England committee of nine people (including the Governor) that meets every month to review the economy and set monetary policy interest rates for the UK.

252
Q

Monetary stimulus

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Changes in monetary policy designed to increase aggregate demand including lower policy interest rates and measures to increase the supply of credit.

253
Q

Money supply

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

The entire quantity of a country’s commercial bills, coins, loans and credit.

254
Q

Multiplier effect

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

If there is an initial injection (e.g. a rise in exports), then the final increase in aggregate demand and real GDP will be greater. The size of the multiplier coefficient is affected by the marginal rate of withdrawal / leakage from the circular flow of income.

255
Q

National debt

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

A government’s total outstanding debt - effectively what the government still owes from the budget deficits accumulated over time

256
Q

Negative interest rate

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

An interest rate that is below zero. For real interest rates, this can occur when the inflation rate is higher than the nominal interest rate.

257
Q

Office of Budget Responsibility

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

The OBR is a non-departmental public body funded by the Treasury, that the UK government established to provide independent economic forecasts and independent analysis of the public finances.

258
Q

Patent box

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

A reduced rate of Corporation Tax applied to profits from patents – designed to stimulate research and innovation and improve the supply-side of the economy.

259
Q

Personal allowance

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

The amount of income you can earn before you start paying income tax. It is currently £12,500 in 2019.

260
Q

Progressive tax

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

With a progressive tax, the marginal rate of tax rises as income rises. I.e. as people earn more income, the rate of tax on each extra pound goes up. This causes a rise in the average rate of tax.

261
Q

Proportional tax

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

When the marginal rate of tax is constant leading to a constant average rate of tax

262
Q

Quantitative easing (QE)

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

The introduction of new money into the national supply by a central bank. In the UK the Bank of England creates new money to buy financial assets from financial institutions. Total planned QE in January 2017 totalled £445 billion.

263
Q

Real interest rate

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Nominal rate of interest adjusted for inflation.

264
Q

Redistribution

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Measures taken by government to transfer income from some individuals to others.

265
Q

Regressive tax

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

With a regressive tax, the rate of tax paid falls as incomes rise – I.e. the average rate of tax is lower for people on higher incomes. Examples: Duties on tobacco and alcohol

266
Q

Stimulus

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Monetary policy and/or fiscal policy aimed at encouraging higher growth and/or inflation. This can include interest rate cuts, quantitative easing (QE), direct and indirect tax cuts and government spending increases such as higher infrastructure investment.

267
Q

Structural budget deficit

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

The structural deficit is that part of the deficit which is not related to the state of the economy. This part of the fiscal deficit will not disappear when the economy recovers.

268
Q

Subsidy

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Payments by the government to suppliers that reduce their costs. The effect of a subsidy is to increase supply and therefore reduce the market equilibrium price.

269
Q

Target

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

A target is an objective of government policy e.g. low inflation

270
Q

Taxation

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

The imposition of taxes on streams of income, commercial activities and wealth by the government.

271
Q

Tax burden

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

The tax burden measures total tax revenues as a % of GDP.

272
Q

Tax competition

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

Tax competition happens when a national government uses reforms to the tax system as a supply-side strategy to attract investment and jobs into their economy.

273
Q

Time lags

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

The time it takes for one change e.g. a change in interest rates to affect other variables e.g. consumer confidence and spending

274
Q

Transmission mechanism

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

How a change in interest rates affects the behaviour of economic agents and ultimately leads to changes in aggregate demand, employment and inflationary pressures.

275
Q

Unit tax

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

A specific tax per unit sold e.g. the duty on a litre of fuel might be 80 pence.

276
Q

Welfare cap

2.6.2 - Demand-side policies

A

The welfare cap is a limit on the amount that UK government can spend on certain social security benefits and tax credits - It excludes pensions and Jobseekers’ Allowance

277
Q

Competition policy

2.6.3 - Supply-side policies

A

Government policy directed at encouraging competition in the private sector: e.g. the investigation of takeovers or restrictive practices, regulation of monopoly power

278
Q

Competitive market

2.6.3 - Supply-side policies

A

Where no single firm has a dominant position and where the consumer has plenty of choice when buying goods or services. There are few barriers to the entry of new firms.

279
Q

Ease of entry

2.6.3 - Supply-side policies

A

The ease with which a business can enter a market in search of a profit. When barriers to entry are low, a market can grow, increasing competition between firms and creating new jobs.

280
Q

Geographical immobility

2.6.3 - Supply-side policies

A

Barriers to people moving from one area to another to find work.

281
Q

Immobility of labour

2.6.3 - Supply-side policies

A

Barriers to the movement of people between areas and between jobs.

282
Q

Incentives

2.6.3 - Supply-side policies

A

Incentives can be used to make goods and services markets, as well as labour markets, work more efficiently and therefore creating greater productive capacity.

283
Q

Infrastructure

2.6.3 - Supply-side policies

A

The transport links, communications networks, sewage systems, energy plants and other facilities essential for the efficient functioning of a country and its economy.

284
Q

Occupational immobility

2.6.3 - Supply-side policies

A

Workers having the wrong skills for available job vacancies. This can be overcome by giving labour transferable skills.

285
Q

Poverty trap

2.6.3 - Supply-side policies

A

The poverty trap affects people on low incomes. It creates a disincentive to look for work or work longer hours because of the effects of the tax and benefits system.

286
Q

Productive potential

2.6.3 - Supply-side policies

A

Productive capacity of the economy – boosted by high quality capital investment.

287
Q

Productivity

2.6.3 - Supply-side policies

A

How much output is produced for a given input (such as an hour of work).

288
Q

Pro-market supply-side policies

2.6.3 - Supply-side policies

A

These policies focus on reducing the size of the state and extending the role of market forces in allocating scarce resources. For example: Cutting government spending (including welfare) and borrowing, lower business taxes to stimulate capital investment spending, reducing income tax rates to improve work incentives

289
Q

Relative poverty

2.6.3 - Supply-side policies

A

Relative poverty measures the extent to which a household’s financial resources falls below an average income threshold for the economy.

290
Q

Spare capacity

2.6.3 - Supply-side policies

A

When a business is not making full use of its available capacity – there are spare factors of production including land, labour and capital. When an economy has plenty of spare capacity, short run aggregate supply is elastic,and the output gap is negative.

291
Q

State-driven supply-side policies

2.6.3 - Supply-side policies

A

When a government believes that active intervention in markets can help achieve increased productive capacity and competitiveness. Examples include: State investment in public services and critical infrastructure, a commitment to a minimum wage and/or living wage to improve work incentives & productivity in the labour market, higher taxes on the wealthy to fund public and merit goods.

292
Q

Stimulus

2.6.3 - Supply-side policies

A

Monetary policy and/or fiscal policy aimed at encouraging higher growth and/or inflation. This can include interest rate cuts, quantitative easing (QE), direct and indirect tax cuts and government spending increases such as higher infrastructure investment.

293
Q

Sustainable growth

2.6.3 - Supply-side policies

A

Growth that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable growth can continue without damage to the environment, or the exhaustion of non-renewable resources.

294
Q

Phillips Curve

2.6.4 - Conflicts and trade-offs between objectives and policies

A

The Phillips Curve shows a trade-off between inflation and unemployment. A demand-side policy to reduce unemployment could conflict with price stability.

295
Q

Policy asymmetry

2.6.4 - Conflicts and trade-offs between objectives and policies

A

When a given change in interest rates affects different groups or different countries to a lesser or greater degree.

296
Q

Trade-off

2.6.4 - Conflicts and trade-offs between objectives and policies

A

A trade-off implies that choices have to be made between different objectives of policy for example a trade-off between economic growth and inflation.

A Level Economics (22 decks)

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