Trying to preserve autocracy 1855-1894 Flashcards
1
Q
Describe the geography of Russia in 1855
A
Vast empire spanning over 8m sqm. 5000 miles across 2000 down.
Rapid population growth (1815=40m , 1850 =70m, 1897, 125m)
Majority lived in West attracted by economic prosperity (mosc+spete) but 82% were peasants.
Multiethnic e.g. Ukrainian, Tatars, Latvians all seeking independence = threat.
2
Q
Describe society in Russia in 1855
A
Dominated by a landed gentry who managed to control often very volatile peasants through village councils which established and collected taxes, selected peasants for army and allocated land.
Around half of peasants were slaves owned by gentry.
Peasant living conditions were terrible leading to life expectancy of just 35.
3
Q
Describe the army of Russia in 1855
A
Deployed when law and order broke down.
1855 = 1.4m soldiers.
Most were conscripted serfs forced to join for 25 years (essentially life sentence)
Poorly trained and performed erratically especially in Crimean war.
By 1855 overriding concern in government was that Russia was falling behind the west who had already industrialised.
This anxiety was to have a profound effect on domestic and foreign policies.
4
Q
Describe the economy of Russia in 1855
A
Economic growth was sluggish compared to West.
Russia possessed an undeveloped banking system unable to supply capital for introduction of modern technology so small scale production prevailed in most areas keeping output low.
Nearly half of total exports came from grain with most imports being finished goods from Europe.
Trade hard due to poor transport links. (no developed railway system. Just 1600km compared to 15000km in Britain)
5
Q
Describe religion in Russia in 1855
A
Dominated by the Russian orthodox Church. = Conservative and supported tsar.
Intertwined with state = governed by holy synod which was headed by a govt minister.
tsar had absolute power over church = emphasises its use for social control.
Orthodox church became more detached from wants and needs of urban population.
Breakaway groups emerged e.g. old believers which challenged the orthodox.
6
Q
Describe government and politics in Russia in 1855.
A
Tsar was autocrat contrasting Western democracy.
Nicholas 1 belonged to Romanov family who ruled since 1613.
114000 bureaucrats needed due to vast size but many unpaid so prone to bribes.
Another key feature was secret police (The Third Section) alongside traditional police (but only 40 investigatorsin 1855).
All members of govt aristocracy appointed by tsar. Central govt in StPete.
Tsar chose to accept/reject advice of Imperial Council, Senate and Personal Chancellery
7
Q
When did Alexander II come to power and who preceded him?
A
1855 after the death of Nicholas I. ‘Best prepared heir the Russian throne ever had’.
8
Q
What was the issue with Alexander’s push for social reform whilst maintaining autocracy?
A
Isolated him from both reformers and conservatives alike.
9
Q
Describe Alexander II’s aims and character.
A
Committed to retaining autocratic powers but was more open to the ideas of those around him than his father.
10
Q
What proportion of society were made up by the upper class?
A
12.5% - royalty, nobility, higher clergy
11
Q
What portion of society were made up by the middle class (bourgeoisie)?
A
1.5% - merchants, bureaucrats, professionals
12
Q
What portion of society were made up by the working class?
A
4% - factory workers, artisans, soldiers, sailors
13
Q
What portion of society were made up by the peasants?
A
82% - Landed and landless gentry
14
Q
Describe the characteristics of serfdom.
A
Could be bought and sold by their masters.
Could be conscripted into the army for 25 years against their will.
Illiterate, superstitious, conservative
No right to appeal misjudgement
Lord controlled marriage, employment, education, religion e.t.c
Lived in treacherous conditions (life expectancy just 35)
Loved and respected Tsar - didn’t see him as the creator of their conditions.
15
Q
Describe the Royal family’s role in the pyramid of society at the time.
A
Autocratic and ‘unlimited’ monarch with endless privileges. Responsibility to the people and to God. Didn’t hold unlimited power e.g. couldn’t take land off people. Has to work with provincial governors but doesn’t have to take their advice.
16
Q
Describe the Russian Orthodox Church’s role in the pyramid of society at the time.
A
Tsar was head of Church appointed by God. Subject to Tsarist control over appointments, finances and administration. Priests delivered news on edicts.
17
Q
Describe the army’s role in the pyramid of society at the time.
A
Maintained law and order but mostly made up of conscripted serfs forced to live in a ‘military colony’. (1.5m = worlds biggest)
18
Q
What was the ratio of village to town dwellers in 1855 Russia?
A
11:1 compared to 2:1 in Britain at the time.
19
Q
When was the Crimean War?
A
1854-1856
20
Q
Who were the combatants in the Crimean War?
A
700,000 Russians vs 980,000 French, British, Ottoman, Sardinian.
21
Q
Name 2 famous battles of the Crimean War
A
Battle of Balaclava 1854
Siege of Sevastopol, fell August 1855 - loss of major naval base.
22
Q
Why did Russia lose the Crimean War?
A
Serf conscripts + poor treatment + 25 year ‘life sentence’= low motivation.
Communication issues (60k of 1m summoned to battle)
No industrial revolution = lack of modern weapons.
Corrupt and ineffective administration.
Military suffered huge losses due to illness and disease.
Landowners sent older, less fit soldiers so the younger ones could work.
23
Q
What were the consequences of the loss in Crimea?
A
Embarrassing as fought on Russian soil.
Exposed the severity of Russia’s problems.
24
Q
Why weren’t serfs previously emancipated?
A
They were seen as useful in war (Crimea proved this wrong) and the landowners wouldn’t be able to sustain their land without them.
25
What was the opinion of Westernisers about 19th century Russia?
Believed Russia should adopt certain western values e.g. the rule of law and develop institutions similar to those in western Europe.
e.g Turgenev
26
What was the opinion of Slavophiles about 19th century Russia?
Wanted to preserve Slav culture and the autocratic system of government.
Saw western values and institutions as unsuited to Russia.
e.g Dostoevsky
27
Describe how morality contributed to Alexander's motivation for emancipation of the serfs.
Members of the royal family including Grand Duke Constantine (brother) and Duchess Elena Pavlovna (aunt) publically supported reform.
Nicholas I himself (father) said it was 'an evil, palpable and obvious to all'
Enlightened nobles had been affected by writers such as Turgenev but nevertheless the majority of nobles believed it would be damaging to the Russian state.
28
Describe how risk of revolt contributed to Alexander's motivation for emancipation of the serfs.
Concern for social stability - 'better to abolish serfdom from above than wait until it begins to abolish by itself from below' (1856)
Significant spike in disturbances 1857-1859 (Tsar even ordered weekly reports on the mood of peasantry December 57)
Army mostly serfs so stopping revolts difficult.
29
Describe how the Crimean War contributed to Alexander's motivation for emancipation of the serfs.
Drew attention to state of serf army - Compulsory 25 year enlisting meant lack of motivation - military reformers thought Russia needed a better trained, smaller army.
However, releasing thousands of serfs back into villages was very dangerous so military reform could only happen when serfdom was abolished.
30
Describe how economic reasons contributed to Alexander's motivation for emancipation of the serfs.
Vital to abolish serfdom to advance -
Free labour more productive than forced labour - free labour meant they could move around to where they were most productive - industry or agriculture.
Rural poverty left serfs unable to pay their taxes, contributing to the state facing a debt of 54 million roubles in 1859.
- Milyutin - 'Only with the emancipation of the serfs will the betterment of our rural economy become possible'.
31
Finish Alexander II's quote (1856) 'I ask you gentlemen...' and explain its significance
'I ask you gentleman, to figure out how all this can be carried out to completion' - involves landowners in process.
32
'Better to destroy serfdom from above...'
'wait until it begins to abolish itself from below'.
33
What was the Nazimov rescript and when was it signed?
November 1857 - Alexander gives an 'imperial instruction' to nobles
Nobles form committees and submit proposals - gradual liberation.
34
When and what was the Ukase on Emancipation?
February 1861
Article 1 - 'serfdom and bondage (to land) forever abolished'.
Serfs receive about the same amount of land as they had farmed.
State pays nobility and serfs pay state.
Mir given increased responsibility - Collection and paying of taxes.
35
How many people received their freedom as a result of emancipation in 1861?
23 million
36
What were the key arrangements of the emancipation for the landowners?
- Landowners retained around 2/3 of their land.
- The landowners received market value for the land they were handing over.
- They could choose which of their holdings to hand over so kept the best land for themselves.
37
What were the key arrangements of the emancipation for the serfs?
- Received far less land than they had worked.
- 2-3 million peasants completely landless.
- The land they received was lower quality.
- Powers of the Mir increased.
38
What were the key consequences of the emancipation for the landowners?
- Felt like they hadn't been properly compensated - loss in land, status, influence and power.
- Most of the money paid went towards repaying debts.
- Land prices doubled to satisfy needs of nobles - angered both sides.
- Economic loss due to fall in agricultural profits.
39
What were the key consequences of the emancipation for the serfs?
- Peasants felt cheated as they still didn't own the land but had to pay for it over 49 years - peasant disturbances.
- Right to own property in their own names = beginning of the Kulak class.
- Radical intelligentsia reacted badly to the terms as they felt it protected the nobles.
40
How many peasant disturbances were there in 1861?
Over 1000 including one which involved 10,000 peasants.
The army had to be brought in to restore order on over 300 estates.
41
What was a kulak?
- Someone who bought land off poorer peasants and rented out to other peasants.
- Middle class peasants/rural bourgeoisie.
- The serfs who the kulaks bought the land off now owned no land so moved to cities.
42
What is a Duma?
Urban town council
43
What is a Zemstvo?
Rural council
44
Why did many serfs believe the nobles had edited the document by the time it had reached them?
The serfs were promised to be free, instead they were burdened with payment and often lived worse lives than before emancipation, whilst the nobles 'benefitted'
45
why were many reforms introduced in the early stages of Alexander II's reign, not just emancipation?
Current society relied on serfdom, so abolishing serfdom without reform would prevent a properly functioning society.
46
What reforms did Alexander II make which impacted the Church?
- more meritocratic system = talented and more educated priests gain promotion.
- Reduced influence in education and local government.
- Short-lived relaxation of treatment of Catholics and Jews in Poland, but increased again after 1863 Polish Reb
- Initial minor attempts to reduce corruption in ROC but reactionary policies of 1870s ended hope of significant ROC reform.
- Very little long-term impact
47
What reforms did Alexander II make which impacted the military?
- All classes now conscripted
- Conscription reduced from 25 years to 6 years (+ 9 in reserve) by Milyutin in 1856
- Military colonies abolished in 1857
- Investment in modern weapons but supply issues remained.
- New more meritocratic structure.
- New military colleges introduced to train non-noble officers.
- Unsuccessful = struggled vs Turkey 1877-78 and Japan 1904-05.
48
What reforms did Alexander II make which impacted local govt?
- Everyone can vote (ish), but votes weighted in favour of the nobility
- Zemstva (est 1864) and Dumas replaced gentry with power in countryside, but this orgs were dominated by nobility.
- Zemstva power was very limited, e.g held no control over taxation.
- Tsar appointed and influenced provincial governors/officials.
- Despite vast change, issues remained the same.
49
What reforms did Alexander II make which impacted peasants?
- Internal passports introduced to prevent peasants leaving to not pay redemption payments.
- Punishment of conscription banned
- Zemstva introduced to serve peasant needs, despite being controlled by nobility.
- Education improved (e.g. number of primary schools tripled 1856-1880), but still only elementary for peasants.
- Volost courts - people's courts judged by peers e.g Zemstva
50
What reforms did Alexander II make which impacted (radical) university students?
- Number of people in Uni 3600->10,000
- Uni's self-governing from 1863, giving them more independence, increasing number of radical students and threat to regime.
- Censorship relaxed, increasing criticism of regime e.g newspapers, esp. around Uni's
- Censorship re-tightened in 1870's simply increased criticism further.
- Tsar took back govt control on ed in 1866
51
What judicial reforms did Alexander II make?
- Volost courts = people's courts, judged by peers like Zemstva, but punishment was often even harder for peasants.
- Transparent trials with press led to 'famous' public cases = criticism of regime.
- Simplified court procedures to prevent decade long trials.
- Judges given more training to reduce corruption.
- Innocent until proven guilty
- More power to lawyers who were given a platform to criticise the regime to the press.
52
When and what happened in the trial of Vera Zasulich?
1878 - Vera Zasulich attempted to assassinate the much hated Governor of St Petersburg, Trepov. She was let off as the court decided she has 'just cause;.
- This fueled the radical wing of Russia who felt that there wouldn't be consequences for their actions.
53
What was the Trial of 193 and when?
1877-78 - Show trials for those accused of revolutionary activities.
- 153 of 193 acquitted, rest given light sentences.
- Defence lawyers' heartfelt speeches reported in press and inspired more radical activity.
54
What is meant by the opinion that Alexander II became more reactionary later in his reign?
That his actions and policies were backward looking in order to restore the past and 'undo' his previous liberalising policies.
55
Why did Alexander become more reactionary after 1866.
- Polish Revolt 1863 (January Uprising)
- Death of son and heir 1865
- Attempted assassination 1866
- Family developments inc. mistress
56
What and when was the Polish Revolt?
- A.K.A January Uprising
- Poland was the most valuable land in Russia, and the Tsar had previously given it relative autonomy including freedom of religion, and yet they revolted 22/01/1863 to 11/04/1864.
- It took 100,000 troops to quell the revolt.
57
What was the significance of the death of the Tsar's son and when did it occur?
- 24/04/1865 - Nicholas Alexandrovich
- Eldest son, therefore tsesarevich, leaving him one son left, making him reconsider the strength of the dynasty.
58
When was the first attempt on the Tsar's life and what happened?
- 1866 nobility and former student Dmitry Karakozov shot (but missed) Alexander.
- There was 4 more unsuccessful attempts between 1867-1880.
59
Who was Alexander II's mistress and how did she impact Alexander becoming more reactionary?
- Catherine Dolgorukova
- Led to him distancing himself from his family, including reforming elements such as Grand Duke Constantine and Grand Duchess Elena.
- Developments w/ e.g revolts and assassinations led to him becoming more aloof.
- He became less inclined to resist the reactionary conservatives who believed his reforms went too far.
60
What did reactionaries believe?
- Reactionaries believed that the Tsar's reforms had gone too far, weakening the props to which the Imperial monarchy relied (Church, nobility).
- They also feared the spread of Western ideas through liberal universities and the free(r) press.
61
Which changes was Alexander pressured to make in government in 1866 from liberal ministers to conservative ministers?
Education - Golovnin to Dmitry Tolstoy (Epstein grabs toddlers)
Internal affairs - Valuev to Timashev (Infants veto Talbot)
Head of Third Section (secret police) - now Pyotr Shuvalov (teens scared of Saville)
Justice - now Konstantin Pahlen (jack kills prostitutes)
62
What counter-reforms did Tolstoy make to education? x6
- Zemstva's power over education were reduced
- Tsar took back govt control of ed 1866
- church was restored to a position of prominence in rural schools
-gymnazii (higher schools) were forced to abandon natural sciences and follow a strict classical curriculum
- From 1871, only students from traditional gymnazii schools were allowed to progress to universities
- critical thinking subjects (Lit., science, history etc.) were forced out
- censorship was tightened again
63
What counter-reforms did Pyotr Shuvalov and Konstantin Pahlen make to police, law and control? x4
- Third Section were now responsible for rooting out subversion
- Konstantin Pahlen ensured the judicial system made an example of those accused of political agitation.
- show trials, trial of 50 and the trial of 193 were set up to prosecute those who were involved in revolutionary activity
(this backfired as most were freed or given light sentences)
- 1878, political crimes would be transferred from civil courts to military courts (sentences could be passed in secret).
64
What problems of the late 1870s meant that the Loris-Melikov Constitution was necessary?
- Growth of opposition in the 1870s, particularly among intelligentsia and Unis.
- Russo-Turkish war did not result in a swift victory as expected (11 months, rather than a matter of days)
- Assassination attempts on the Tsar in 1879 and 1880.
- The Tsar realised that violence and unrest would be better curbed by widening democratic consultation.
65
Who was Count Mikhail Loris-Melikov and what did he suggest?
- Appointed Minister of Internal Affairs August 1880.
- Suggested a more democratic and representative government.
66
What was the Loris-Melikov Constitution?
- in 1880 Loris-Melikov produced a report in response to Zemstva demands.
- It recommended the inclusion of elected representatives of the nobility, Zemstva, and town governments in debating the drafts of some of the decrees.
-(not real constitution)
67
What else did Loris-Melikov recommend?
A number of more liberal reforms with the aim of appeasing revolutionaries
- political prisoners to be released
- censorship was relaxed
- third section was abolished and replaced with the Okhrana - 'softer' form of secret police'
-Lifted restrictions on Zemstva
68
What did Alexander II say of the Loris-Melikov Constitution
"I have given my approval, but I do not hide from myself the fact that it is the first step towards a constitution."
Significance of the reforms lay in the value Alexander attributed to them
69
Did Alexander accept the Loris-Melikov Constitution?
Yes - He accepted on 13th March 1881. That same day...ykw
70
When and by who was Alexander II assassinated?
- 13th March 1881
- A bomb from The People's Will whilst travelling to The Winter Palace
71
What was Alexander III like as a ruler?
-Alexander III was forceful, formidable, fiercely patriotic, and at 6' 4" towered over his fellow countrymen.
-To many westerners he appeared crude and not overly intelligent. Queen Victoria commented that she thought him as "a sovereign whom she does not look upon as a gentleman".
72
Who was Konstantin Pobedonostsev and what impact did he have on Alexander III?
- Chief advisor when Alexander became Tsar.
- Chief Procurator of the Holy synod from 1880.
- Anti-semitic and a fierce defender of autocracy.
- Key influence on AlexIII from an early age as his tutor.
- Warned Alexander to maintain absolute power, calling democracy 'the biggest lie of our time'.
73
How did Alexander III avenge his father's death?
- Publicly hanged his father assassinators (upon the advice of Pobedonostsev).
- Also publicly hanged any other known
members of 'The People's Will'.
74
What were the 'Emergency Laws' and when were they passed?
- 29th April 1881 issued 'The Manifesto of Unshakeable Autocracy'. (influenced if not written by Pobedonostsev)
- Reaffirmed bond between Church and State and set out emergency measures in the Statute of State Security.
75
What were the 5 key emergency powers in The Statute for State Security in 1881?
- Prohibit gatherings of more than 12 people.
- Prosecute any individual for political crimes.
- Introduce emergency police rule where public order was threatened (e.g. new secret police 'the Okhrana'.
- Set up special courts outside of legal system.
- Closed schools, universities and newspapers.
76
How long did these 'temporary' emergency measures last?
Most lasted until 1917, demonstrating AlexIII's aim to rule with fear and repression.
77
What reaction/counter-reforms did Alexander III introduce in Government?
- Land captains created in 1889 --> voting rights restricted, nobility only, able to overrule Zemstva decisions, controlled police (returned power to nobility).
- 1890 Zemstva Act reduced power of Zemstva.
- Number of people able to vote cut, favouring rich landowners.
78
What positives and negatives did Alexander III's reactionary reforms to Government have for autocracy?
+ = Helps get the nobility back on-side.
= Now has eyes and ears in the countryside (Land Captains)
- = Increases chance of revolt as legitimate means of power sharing have been reduced.
79
What reaction/counter-reforms did Alexander III introduce to the police?
- Secret police 'The Okhrana' established.
-Nationwide police offensive led to 10,000 arrests.
- Okhrana recruited thousands of informers on revolutionary groups.
80
What positives and negatives did Alexander III's reactionary reforms to the police have for autocracy?
+ = Tighter control and tracking of revolutionaries reduced chance of uprisings and assassination attempts.#
= Less powerful revolutionaries reduces spread of radical ideas.
- = Killing revolutionaries could turn them into Martyrs.
= Repression could lead to further opposition.
81
What reaction/counter-reform did Alexander III introduce in the legal and justice system?
- Increase in closed trials for political offences in 1887 --> judges became less independent as their jobs were less secure.
- Crime against the State could be trialled in special courts without a jury to prevent a repeat of Trial of 193 e.t.c.
- Minister of Justice could order trials to be held privately.
- The Justices of the Peace was abolished and their functions were transferred to Land Captains.
82
What positives and negatives did Alexander III's reactionary reforms to the legal and justice system have for autocracy?
+
= Huge increase in the centralisation of power to local Govts and Land Captains and therefore the Tsar.
= Reduces chance of Martyrs being created in public courts.
-
= Gave lots more power to local Govt
= Meant there was less of a scare factor being prosecuted in private rather than public hangings.
83
What reaction/counter-reforms did Alexander III introduce in control and repression?
- Press censorship increased in 1882 (under Tolstoy as MoIA) (e.g.publications which criticised Tsar were banned) --> no freedom of press or criticism of the Tsar.
- (See police reforms for more examples of control and repression).
84
What positives and negatives did Alexander III's reactionary reforms to control and repression have for autocracy?
+ = Tighter control reduces the chance of assassination and uprising attempts.
= Subdue democratic ideas.
- = Repression could lead to further opposition, especially among e.g. liberal intelligentsia.
85
What reaction/counter-reforms did Alexander III introduce in education?
- Students banned from gathering in groups larger than 5 --> should have reduced the spread of ideas, but didn't.
- Secondary school fees increased so only the rich could attend.
- Only students who went to 'gymnazi' (grammar) schools could attend Uni.
- Uni courses closed for women.
- 1881 University Statute brought in strict controls on Unis limiting their autonomy and freedom for students e.g. staff appointed by Ministry of Education.
86
What percentage of Russia was literate in 1897 compared to England and what impact did this have?
- 21% compared to 90% in England
- Restricted critical thinking, making them easier to control.
87
What positives and negatives did Alexander III's reactionary reforms to education have for autocracy?
+ = Restricted critical thinking making the population easier to control.
= Not allowing criticism reduced the spread of opposition.
- = Infuriated the intelligentsia who were already at the centre of revolutionary ideas.
= Less literate and educated population makes economic growth and modernisation more difficult.
88
What reaction/counter-reforms did Alexander III introduce in the economy?
- Peasants Land Bank of 1883 --> ex surfs can buy more land.
- Nobles Land Bank of 1885 --> lending money to nobility at low interest rates so they could pay off debts.
- Industrial spurt in the 1890's
- Exported too much grain, not leaving enough for his own people causing famine e.g 1891/92.(400,000 people, credited for the reawakening of russian marxism and populism)
89
What positives and negatives did Alexander III's reactionary reforms to the economy have for autocracy?
+ = Increased the Tsar's revenue.
= Helped gain the backing of the nobility by reducing their debts.
- = Frequent famine created unrest and stimulated revolt.
= Industrialisation increased the size of the working class increasing the chance of a communist or socialist revolt.
90
How did Alexander II feel about autocracy?
- Alex II had strong liberal ideas but when challenged introduced counter reforms to reduce revolutionary activity from the nobility. His attempt to introduce liberal policies again came too late.
91
How did Alexander III feel about autocracy?
- Alex III had a strong autocratic nature and was willing to preserve autocracy by any means possible
92
What proportion of the Russian Empire weren't Russian?
55%
93
What was the aim of Russification?
To make the 55% non-Russian empire Russian in terms of language, religion and law.
94
Which groups pushed for Russification the hardest?
Civil service, military and Church
95
When did Russification exist?
Existed from the 1870's under Alexander II throughout the reigns of Alexander III and Nicholas II.
96
Which area of land was known as 'The Pale of Settlement'? Who were confined here?
Western parts of the Russian Empire which Russian Jews were confined to by law in 1795 and 1835.
By 1885 there were over 4 million Jews living in the Pale.
97
Who was Pobedonostsev and what was his role in Russification?
Head of the Orthodox Church and advisor to the monarch. Hated muslims and Jews. Political ideal of nation was only one nationality, one language, one religion, one form of administration. Advised heavily in favour of Russification.
98
Which Minister for the Interior oversaw some of the excesses of Russification, in particular against the Jews
Dmitry Tolstoy.
99
What were some benefits of Russification for autocracy?
- Lead to greater economic integration and trade.
- Easier to control through local Government (all subject to same rules)
- Encourages nationalism and patriotism.
100
What were the downsides of Russification for autocracy?
- May lead to opposition in non-Russian parts of Empire who are having their faith, culture, traditions and nationality stripped.
- Difficult to carry out in practice - expensive and time-consuming.
101
How was Finland persecuted by Russification?
- The Diet (Parliament) re-organised in 1892 to reduce its political influence.
- Use of Russian language increasingly demanded.
- Russian coinage replaced Finnish currency
- Independent postal service abolished.
102
How were Baltic Germans persecuted by Russification?
- End of special protection by Alexander III's predecessors.
- Between 1885-89, measures were brought in to enforce the use of Russian in all state offices, elementary schools, secondary schools, police force and judicial system.
- German university of Dorpat became The University of Yuryev 1893-1918.
- 37,000 Lutherans converted to Orthodoxy.
103
How was Poland persecuted by Russifcation?
- Bank of Poland closed down in 1885.
- Teaching of all subjects other than Polish national language/religion in Russian.
- Polish administration changed to curb independence movement.
- Catholic monasteries closed down.
104
How were Belorussia, Georgia and the Ukraine persecuted by Russification?
- Further laws restricting use of Ukrainian language in 1883.
- All theatres in all 5 Ukrainian provinces closed in 1884,
- Military service extended to places previously exempt.
105
Give some examples of Russification causing resistance?
- In June 1888 there were 332 cases of disturbance in 61 of Russia's 92 provinces and districts. In 51 cases military was deployed (trouble swiftly curbed).
106
In what ways did Russification fail?
- Intensified the feeling of nationalism in non-Russian parts of the Empire. (forced language, customs, laws)
- Resentment especially from the wealthy and educated from the West of the Empire e.g. Finns, Poles, Baltic Germans.
- Drove emigration of wealthier people in Western countries.
- Caused individuals to join resistance who usually wouldn't have.
- Failed to unite Empire.
107
How many Jews were there in the Russian Empire)
- 5 million, mostly in the West of the Empire. They suffered more than any group as a result of Russification.
108
What is a pogrom?
- An organized massacre of a particular ethnic group, in particular that of Jewish people in Russia or eastern Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
- The authorities did little to curb the violence.
109
What and when was the first pogrom?
- Yelizavetgrad on 15-16th April 1881.
110
What were some examples of Alexander passing laws to restrict the rights and freedoms of Jews?
- Restricted to certain districts or ghettoes.
- Within the Pale, Jews paid double taxes, forbidden to lease land, run taverns or receive higher education.
- May Laws
111
When were the May Laws written and how long were they active for?
3rd May 1882. Were supposed to be only temporary but stayed in place for more than 30 years.
112
What were the May Laws?
- Article 1 = Jews forbidden to settle outside of cities and towns of more than 10,000 people.
- Article 2 = All contracts for the mortgaging and renting of property to a Jew shall be of no effect.
- Jews forbidden to do business on Sundays or Christian holidays.
113
What was the impact of anti-semitism?
- Many Jews emigrated of expelled.
- Many others, such as Leon Trotsky and Julius Martov were driven to join revolutionary groups, particularly Marxist and Socialist organisations.
114
Why was moderate liberal opposition a small group?
There was less literate and educated Russians. However, the group grew due to the reforms and economic challenges of later in the 19th century.
115
When did Radical opposition develop and with what group?
Developed among the younger generation, especially after the increased repression of the late 1860's and beyond. Influenced by writers such as Marx and Chernyshevsky.
116
Name an example of a radical student group
'Young Russia' were a group of students who started a series of fires in Moscow in June 1862, destroying over 2000 shops.
117
Who were the Narodniks (populists)?
Narodism (Populism) was the idea of 'going to the people' to stimulate opposition against the Tsar.
118
Describe the first attempt of Narodism
In 1874, Pyotr Lavrov convinced a group of around 2000 to travel around the countryside persuading the peasantry that the future of Russia depended on the developments of peasantry.
119
Why did Narodnyism fail?
Peasant hostility and loyalty to the Tsar meant 1600 were arrested. (It also failed a second time 1877-78).
120
What was one benefit of the failure of Narodnism for opposition?
It helped take opposition from underground in cities to the countryside.
121
What was one benefit of the failure of Narodism for autocracy?
Bringing opposition ideas out of the underground into the countryside helped make the govt more aware of the depth and feeling of its opponents.
122
What did Narodniks later become?
Social Revolutionaries (SRs)
123
Who were 'Land and Liberty'
Birthed by Narodniks in 1877 to continue Populism. Members sought to work within peasant communes, and some carried out political assassinations.
124
Who did 'Land and Liberty' assassinate and when?
Head of Third Section , General Mezemstev, in 1878
125
What made 'Land and Liberty' different to other radical groups?
They elicited considerable public support, and there were even talks between LaL and Zemstva to try and put more pressure on the Tsar for constitutional reform. (The Tsarist Govt failed to respond).
126
When did Land and Liberty split into 2 groups
1879
127
What 2 groups did Land and Liberty split into?
- Black Repartition in St Petersburg, headed by Georgi Plekhanov and wanted social change without resorting to violence. Ceases to exist by mid 1880s.
- The People's Will were a much bigger group headed by Aleksandr Mikhailov, resorted to violence including assassination of Alex II on March 13th 1881.
128
Why were Alexander II and III not worried about Marxism?
Not enough workers in Russia meant industrial revolution was impossible.
129
What was the significance of the spread of opposition for autocracy?
- Govt failures, show trials and assassinations suggested that the regime lacked authority.
- Demands for 'reform from below' had spread to wider areas and more social groups.
- The Zemstva undermined the Tsar by holding talks with Land and Liberty.
- There was simultaneous pressure from the right (nobles, conservatives, land owners) to adopt a harsher stance on opposition groups, stimulating even further opposition.
130
What helped reduce unemployment and increase the size of the domestic market in Russia?
Expansion of the middle class = a rise in consumerism.
131
Who was Mikhail von Reutern?
- Minister of Finance 1862-1878
- He was a Baltic German
132
What were the reforms of Mikhail Von Reutern's 16 years as finance minister? (there's a lot, don't need to know all)
- Treasury reformed
- Tax-farming (where groups could buy the rights to collect certain taxes) abolished.
- Tax system reformed, e.g. introduced more indirect taxation.
- State bank (1860), municipal banks (1862), and savings bank (1869) established and extended credit facilities to increase consumption.
- Reduced import duties in 1863, promoting trade
- Government subsidies offered to encourage private entrepreneurs to develop railways.
- Govt guaranteed dividends for foreign investors.
- Tariffs lowered and trade treaties negotiated.
- Textile industry specifically expanded to capitalise on markets previously dominated by US (civil war at time)
133
Give an example of foreign investment in Russian industry
- In 1879, Swedish Nobel brothers set-up Branobel, an oil company, headquartered in St Petersburg and became one of the largest oil companies in the world by the end of the 19th century.
134
Which Welsh businessman set up his own settlement in Russia?
John Hughes set up Hughesovka (later Donetsk, Ukraine), to support his iron and steel factory nearby. By 1913, his iron and steel works produced 74% of the Empire's iron.
'New Russia Company Ltd'
135
What were the successes of Von Reutern's economic reforms?
- Encouraged investment and enterprise
- Foreign technical expertise and capital supported industrial expansion.
- The railway network expanded rapidly, e.g built Trans-Siberian railway 1891-1913.
- Developments in coal, oil extraction, iron mining and iron works.
- ANNUAL GROWTH OF 6% DURING VON REUTERN'S 16 YEAR TERM.
136
What were the failures of Von-Reutern's policies?
- Russia's economy remained comparatively weak when compared to the West.
- A third of all government expenditure went on repayment of debts.
- The ruble remained comparatively unstable until the gold standard was adopted.
- Tariff reductions, although successful in increasing trade, reduced government income so they were re-raised by 1878.
- The peasantry was poor and the middle class was small, meaning the domestic market remained small.
137
When was Nikolai Bunge Minister of finance?
- 1881-1887
- First finance minister of Alexander III.
138
What was Bunge's aim as finance minister?
To modernise the Russian economy.
139
List some of Bunge's key economic reforms
- Founding of the Peasants Land Bank 1883 (help buy land) and the Nobles Land Bank 1885 (help pay off debts).
- Reduced the tax burden on peasantry, e.g. poll tax abolishedin 1886, inheritance tax introduced.
- Protectionist economic policies in line with Western Europe (restrict international trade to aid domestic markets).
- Continued to fund the construction of railways. (1855 1600 KM compared to 70,000km 1914)
- Introduced the first Russian labour laws.
140
What group forced Bunge out as finance minister?
Russian conservatives
141
What were the positives of the Peasants Land Bank?
+ Helped to increase peasant land ownership, and between 1877 and 1905, over 26 million hectares passed into peasant hands.
142
What were some negatives of the Nobles Land Bank?
- Helped prop up inefficient farms which continued in their old ways
- Although interest rates were low, the loans often only increased debts.
143
When was Vyshnegradsky Finance Minister?
1887-1892
144
What was Vyshnegradsky responsible for?
Russia's industrial take-off, but also for the famine of 1891-92
145
List some of Vyshnegradsky's key finance policies
- Tariffs were raised in the 1880's, and when Vysh came into power 1887, a 30% import duty was placed on raw materials to boost home production. This particularly aided the iron industry in Russia (e.g John Hughes) and the development of industrial machinery.
- Negotiated valuable loans with France in 1888.
- Increased indirect taxes
146
In what year was the Russian budget in surplus?
1892, under Vyshnegradsky
147
How much did grain exports increase from 1881 to 1891?
- Exports increased by 18% (as a percentage of total Russian exports)
148
What was the issue with Vyshnegradsky's huge export drive?
- It was paid at the expense of the peasants, who paid the taxes and saw their grain requisitioned from the State, often not leaving them with enough to survive the Winter.
-This led to the Great Famine of 1891-92, where 375-400,000 people died.
149
What was Vyshnegradsky's quote about grain exports?
'We ourselves shall not eat, but we shall export'
150
When and why was Vyshnegradsky dismissed?
- 1892, largely due to links between his policies and the Great Famine.
151
When was Witte Minister of Finance?
1892-1903
152
How did Witte believe revolutionary activity was best curbed?
Economic modernisation
153
What were the 3 policies Witte believed were vital for Russia to advance?
- Continue with protective tariffs to encourage domestic markets.
- Heavy taxation
- Forced exports to generate capital
154
What are the statistics for foreign investment 1880-95, what caused this and what industries did this investment go to?
1880 - 98 mill roubles of foreign investment
1890 - 215 million
1895 - 280 million
- Caused by Witte's seeking of additional loans from abroad.
- Much of this investment went into mining, the metal trades oil and banking.
- Also, by 1900, half of the capital invested into joint-stock companies was foreign.
155
By 1897, where was Russia on the league table of industrial economies?
4th.
- This growth helped to increase exports and foreign trade, but the bulk of the export trade was still in grain rather than industrial goods.
156
When did Russia join the gold standard, and what was the result?
- 1897
- This meant exchange rates were fixed against other gold-backed currencies, meaning the rouble was finally both strong and steady.
- This provided security on foreign investments.
157
What everyday items did Witte place indirect taxes on, and what was the result?
- e.g. Kerosene, matches and vodka
- These taxes disproportionately impacted peasants, angering peasants who were forced to sell more grain to match the price increases.
158
Drop some evidence of Witte's success as finance minister
- Nearly doubled revenues of the Empire in his 11 years of power.
- Accelerated construction of railways, e.g. Transsib involved 25 factories producing 39m roubles worth of rail.
- Appointed subordinates on merit.
- Coal output increased x3.
- Alexander III told his son on his deathbed to 'listen to Witte' as his most capable minister.
159
What were some advantages and issues with Witte's character?
+ energetic, highly organised, high;y intellectual, immense administrative abilities.
- Ill-mannered, tricky, boastful, evasive, quarrelsome
160
What were some criticisms of Witte?
- Conservatives thought he was undermining social order.
- Tax on alcohol infuriated lower classes.
- In 1914, 4/5 of population were still peasants.
- Interest rates to service foreign debt was very high, and by 1900, 20% of the budget was used to pay off debt, 10x more than education.
- Prioritised industrial advancement over welfare of population.
161
Give evidence that Russian agriculture was successfully modernised after the emancipation of the peasants.
- The Kulaks meant there was an overall increase in agricultural production in the 1870s and 1880s.
- Between 1877 and 1905, over 26 million hectares of land passed into peasant hands
- The Peasants Land Bank set up in 1883 allowed peasants to buy the land from nobles at low rates of interest.
162
Give evidence that Russian agriculture was
NOT successfully modernised after the emancipation of the peasants.
- The famine of 1891-92 showed there continued to be serious problems in Russian agriculture.
- Peasants were too poor to improve their land and farming techniques (e.g. strip farming continued) so grain yields remained low.
163
Give evidence that Russian industry was successfully modernised after the emancipation of the peasants.
- Russia obtained a (more) mobile workforce and industrialisation began, e.g. expansion of cities e.g. Moscow population rising from 1m to 2m.
- Railway expansion - Transsib - 1881 = 21288km, 1914 = 70,156km.
164
Give evidence that Russian industry was
NOT successfully modernised after the emancipation of the peasants.
- 4/5 of population were still peasants in 1914.
- Attempts to modernise led to ministers being forced out by Conservatives (Golovnin, Bunge)
- Still a tiny middle class meaning domestic market was small.
- Terrible working conditions meant that although the labour force expanded, morale was low, leading to social discontent, strikes and low efficiency.
165
What 2 groups were peasants split into after emancipation?
Poorer peasants = often landless (2-3m) and in debt, poor living standards, many moved to cities (by 1864, 1/3 StPete inhabitants were peasants at birth)
Richer reasants = e.g. Kulaks, did well after emancipation, bought land and employed labour, often bought grain off poorer peasants in autumn, and sell it back for a profit in spring.
- Bitter resentment from poorer peasants towards richer peasants.
166
What proportion of the Russian state believed in Orthodoxy?
70%
167
What was the role of the Orthodox Church in society?
- Religion and superstition was a big part of peasant culture.
- Priests had close ties with both village and state: they were expected to read out imperial manifestos and decrees and to inform the police of suspicious activities.
- Church also possessed strict censorship controls and the Church courts judged moral and social 'crimes', awarding punishment for those guilty.
168
What were some laws placed on the Orthodox Church under Alexander II and III?
- 1868 - reforms were introduced to improve the education of priests.
- Under Alexander III and Delyanov (Minister for Education), reforms were introduced to give the Church more control over primary education.
169
How did the Orthodox Church change as a result of Russification?
- Orthodoxy was promoted across the Empire.
- It became an offence to convert from the Orthodox faith or to publish criticisms of it.
- 37,000 Lutherans converted to Orthodoxy in Baltic Germany.
- Some religions saw enforced baptisms, whilst thousands of Muslims, Catholics and Pagans were forcibly converted to Orthodoxy.
170
Was the role of the Orthodox Church in Russian society weakening?
- Control over people's lives was weakening.
- Religion was becoming less relevant for workers in industrial towns.
- In the countryside, superstition was often stronger than trusts in priests.
- Some liberal clergy wanted to regenerate the Church and reform its relations with the State but their demands were rejected by conservatives like Pobedonostsev.
