The collapse of autocracy, 1894–1917 - Revision guide Flashcards
What did Nicolas II admit when he came to the throne in September 1894
“What is going to happen to me and all of Russia? I am not prepared to be a Tsar. I never wanted to become one. I know nothing of the business of ruling.”
How was Nicolas II determined to rule
‘As his father had done’
Why was Nicolas II an unsuitable Tsar
He was indecisive and incapable of making firm decisions or providing direction.
What did Nicolas II rely on to deal with challenges to his authority
The Okhrana and the army
Why did unrest in Russia increase in during the start of Nicolas II’s reign
The government appeared to offer no prospect of change.
What mistake did the Tsar make in 1903
Fired Witte, his most accomplished minister, leaving him surrounded with reactionary ministers.
How did peasants react to the lack of change and suffering of land hunger
Increase in unrest, burned down landowners barns and seized woodland and pasture
‘Years of the red cockerel’
How did industrial workers react to the lack of prospect change
Created illegal unions and became involved in strikes
When and by who was the first official union formed, and why was it allowed
Father Gapon created a union in St Petersburg, 1904, and it was created to prevent workers joining the radical socialists.
How did the Russo-Japanese War begin
Japanese attacked the Russian naval base at Port Arthur
Who was Plehve and what did he call for after the Japanese attack
Minister for Internal Affairs, called for a ‘short, swift, victorious war to stem the tide of revolution’
What were some significant losses for the Russians during the Russo-Japanese War
Battle of Mukden in March 1905, 90,000 dead
Battle of Tsushima in May 1905, 24/27 of the ships in the Russian fleet were sank
Describe the strikes at the Putilov works in St Petersburg
3rd Jan 1905, soon involved 150,000 workers
Describe Bloody Sunday
9th January 1905
Father Gapon led a peaceful march of 20,000 to the Winter Palace with a list of demands for the Tsar, who instead opened fire on the crowd, killing 200
Symptom of conditions not a cause of them
Who was assassinated on the 4th February 1905
Tsar’s Uncle and Grand Duke of Moscow, Sergei Alexandrovich
Describe the mutiny on the battleship Potemkin
June 1905, naval mutiny on the battleship. In Odessa, the authorities tried to disperse the crowds, killing 2000
What union was created in March 1905 and why was it significant?
All Russian Union of Railway Workers was established and soviets of elected factory workers were formed to coordinate strikes
What evidences increasing opposition from the peasants in 1905
Peasants rioted and created a ‘Peasants Union’ in August 1905
What events occurred in September and October increasing tensions in Russia to unseen highs
On the 23rd September a printers strike in Moscow spread around St Petersburg and other cities , and a general strike was created in October
What evidence demonstrates Russia being near to collapse in October 1905
Strikes in the cities and peasant uprisings in the country
Workers set up the St Petersburg Soviet to organise a general strike, which began in October
What was the October Manifesto and what did it promise
October 17th 1905
Promised civil liberties such as freedom of speech, and a State Duma elected by universal suffrage.
What was the impact of the October Manifesto
Split the opposition
Liberals such as the Kadets and Octobrists accepted the manifesto, radicals such as the SR’s and Bolsheviks rejected it.
SRs and SDs continued to get support in the cities and peasant uprisings continued in the country.
How did the Tsar recover his authority by the end of 1905
November and December raided the headquarters of the soviets in St Pete and Moscow. Leaders were arrested.
Peter Struve, (a liberal) , quote
‘Thank god for the Tsar for he has saved us from the people’
Describe the Fundamental Laws
April 1906, asserted Tsars role has an autocratic monarch, demonstrating that he had no desire to become a constitutional monarch.
E.g. claimed his right to ‘exercise supreme autocratic power’
Describe the First Duma
May-June 1906
Dominated by kadets and radicals seeking constitutional change.
Passed a vote of no confidence in the government and was dissolved.
Describe the Second Duma
Feb-June 1907
Bolshevik and SD participation increased amount of radicals
Opposed most of the Tsarist proposals. Even more oppositional than the first Duma.
Dissolved after Stolypin spread a story about an SD plot to assassinate the Tsar and leading radicals were exiled.
After the 2nd Duma, Stolypin (new pm) engineered elections so only 1/6 could vote, to increase number of octobrists - Coup of June 1907
Describe the Third Duma
November 1907-June 1912
Stolypin introduced an emergency law to reduce worker and peasant representation
Octobrists and rightists won majority of seats and Duma was more compliant (but was still suspended twice)
Completed its full term had no clear control over government or proposals.
Describe the Fourth Duma
November 1912-1917
Right and left wings could not cooperate and the Duma was increasingly ignored.
Voted for war credits in 1914 but was suspended in 1915 after demanding more power.
Who was Minister of Finance between 1862-1878
AL2 DONT BOTHER
Mikhail Von Reutern
What were some of Von Reutern’s key reforms
AL2 DONT BOTHER
Believed the government must direct economic change due to a lack of a middle class in Russia
E.G. Credit facilities made available through the establishment of banks
Guaranteed minimum dividends for foreign direct investment
Strengths of Von Reutern’s reforms
AL2 DONT BOTHER
Increase in FDI e.g. Hughesovka, producing 74% of Russian iron in 1913
Expansion of industry e.g. cotton and mining
Weaknesses of Von Reutern’s reforms
AL2 DONT BOTHER
- Majority of profits went to debt repayment
- Currency was unstable
- Labour was still largely immobile
Describe briefly the term of Nikolai Bunge as Finance Minister
1881-87, attempted to modernise the Russian economy
Founded the peasants land bank and the Nobles Land Bank
Introduced first Russian labour laws
Forced out by conservatives
Describe the term of Ivan Vyshnegradsky as Finance Minister
1887-92, ‘we ourselves shall not eat but we shall export’
Aimed to rapidly build up industry
E.g. increased import tariffs by as much as 30% to promote home production.
What was the result of Vyshnegradsky’s reforms
1881-1891 exports increased by 18% (as a percentage of total exports)
Contributed to the famine of 1891-92, 400,000 dead
Describe Sergei Witte’s term as Finance Minister
1892-1903
Interest rates raised to encourage foreign loans
Achieved expansion of the railway network (62,000km in 1914, 2nd most itw)
New rouble backed by the value of gold was issued in 1897, increasing business confidence
Describe ‘the great spurt’
By 1900, Russia’s industrial economy had progressed more in the last decade than the previous century
Moscow grew from 1m to 2m 1890-1914
What was the growth rate of the Russian economy between 1892 and 1914
8% - Witte believed industrialisation was key to curbing revolutionary unrest so pushed for growth.
Describe how the development of railway enhanced growth
21,000km,1881 - 62,000km, 1914
Trans-Siberian railway (1891-1916) linked European Russia with the East Asia
Stimulated heavy industry, reduced transport costs for manufacturers and provided government revenue
Describe industrial growth during the period 1880-1914
Dependent on foreign investment which increased tenfold between 1880 and 1900
By 1914, Russia was the 5th largest industrial power
Describe agricultural policy under Stolypin as pm and minister for the interior 1906 -1911
Believed radical reform was necessary to prevent further peasant unrest
Wanted to increase individual peasant ownership to create a kulak class loyal to the Tsar.
Collective ownership abolished 1906
Redemption payments abolished in 1907, as promised in 1905
New peasant land bank created
Describe the successes of agricultural policy under Stolypin and pm and minister for the interior 1906-1911
Peasant ownership of land increased from 20% in 1905 to 50% in 1915
By 1909 Russia was the world’s’ largest cereal exporter
End of redemption payments meant increased labour mobility and boosting industrial labour supply
Describe the failures of agricultural policy under Stolypin, pm and minister for the interior 1906-1911
Stolypin’s reforms didn’t address the key issue - the redistribution of land held by the nobility who retained 50% of land, and land hunger remained
Kulaks meant many peasants left landless
In 1914, 90% of peasant farms were still based on scattered strips. They were still reluctant to change their methods
How did industrialisation change Russia
Strengthened economy but brought social change which proved detrimental to the Tsarist regime. A new middle class and working class emerged.
Why were the new emerging middle class likely to be opponenets of the regime
Lack of an elected national assembly until 1906 (and the minor role the Duma had on the governing of Russia from this point)
How did the urban population of Russia change between 1867 and 1917
Quadrupled from 7m to 28m
By 1914, factory workers made up nearly 10% of the population
Women made up 1/5 of the workforce by 1914
Describe the living conditions for the urban working class of Russia
Least fortunate slept alongside their machines in the factories
Around 40% of rented housing in StPt had no running water and sewage was collected in buckets
Describe conditions in the workplace in Russia
Limited regulation, allowing poor conditions and minimal wages
Unions and strikes officially banned before Father Gapon (although some illegal strikes took place)
What was the issue with the Tsar making progressive social changes
Every change led to demands for more
List a couple of examples of improvements in working conditions before 1914
1885 - nighttime work for women and children banned
1897 - working hours reduced to 11.5 hours per day (10h in 1914)
1905 - TU’s legalised
Why did industrial militancy increase between 1910 and 1914
Fall in real wages due to inflation and a squeeze on wages caused by growing international competition. This caused numerous strikes
Describe the Lena Goldfields massacre
Lena Goldfields Strike in Siberia, April 1912, demanding better pay and living conditions. Army intervened and around 500 were killed.
Describe the increase in strikes from 1912-1914
1912 - 2000
1913 - 24,000
1914 - 1,000,000
July 1914, a general strike broke out in StPt but ended before the war began on 1st Aug
Why did peasants continue to live at subsistence level
Subject to recurrent famine (e.g. 1891-92, 1898 and 1901)
Why did living and working conditions in the countryside continue to worsen up to 1914
- Grain output per acre was 1/3 of that of Britain and Germany but farmers were still pushed to produce a surplus for export
- The gulf between the Kulaks and landless peasants widened and too few moved to cities to ease the pressure on resources
- Peasant mortality rate was high and few had access to doctors
How did life for the nobility and the middle classes change up to 1914
Despite transferring 1/3 of their land to peasants, the majority of nobles retained their land and wealth and were relied upon for top positions in government
As industrialisation gained pace, the emerging middle class grew in size. A minority of nobles sons and enterprising peasants also joined the middle class
List a few cultural changes which came about up to 1914
- The influence of the Orthodox Church reduced, especially for the w/c in cities for whom socialist ideas had more appeal. However it still had significant sway in the countryside
- By 1914, an increasing number of books were being published after censorship was ended in 1905, and the newly literate read Tolstoy and Dostoevsky
- By 1914, 45% of children aged 8-11 were in primary school
Describe the Romanov Tercentenary celebrations
1913 - millions came out onto the streets of Moscow, StPt and other cities to celebrate the 300th anniversary of the Romanov dynasty.
What did the Romanov Tercentenary celebrations demonstrate about Russian society
Demonstrated widespread support for the tsarist regime still existed throughout Russia
Why did liberal opposition increase due to their strong representation in the Zemstva
1889 AL3 brought in Land Captains to reduce the influence and overrule decisions of the Zemstva, who were often highly critical of autocracy
According to liberals, what instance demonstrated Tsarist incompetence at the beginning of the 1890s
The inability of the government to coordinate famine relief, which the Zemstva were left to provide.
What efforts did the Zemstva make to increase their influence
- Petitioned for a national Duma in 1895, but the Tsar dismissed it as a ‘senseless dream’
- An attempted ‘All-Zemsta Organisation’ (1896) was also banned
How did an improvement in literacy rate increase liberal ideas
Literacy rates increased from 24% in 1897 to 40% in 1914. This meant more people could consume liberal media, such as the author Leo Tolstoy
List some examples of early liberal opposition
- 1899 ‘Beseda’ was formed, and merged with the Union of Liberation (founded by Peter Struve) in 1903. 50 banquets, attended by the liberal elite, were held over Winter 1904 to spread their message
What won over the majority of the liberals in 1905
The October Manifesto (17th Oct)
Why did liberal opposition increase in the lead up to 1914
A number of Kadet leaders were arrested after the dissolution of the first Duma in 1906, and Stolypin engineering the election reduced liberal involvement in the 3rd and 4th Duma. The Tsar increasingly ignored and overruled the Dumas.
By 1914 there was little semblance of a constitutional monarchy
Describe the Socialist Revolutionary party (SR’s)
- Established in 1901, combined Marxism and Populism
- Party journal edited by Viktor Chernov ‘Revolutionary Russia’, and called on both peasants and urban workers to challenge autocracy
- SR’s carried out over 2000 political assassinations 1901-1905 but over 2300 were executed.
Describe the growth of communism in Russia
- As industrialisation boomed, the urban workforce increased in size and Marxist ideas gained more support
- 1883, the first Russian Marxist Association ‘Emancipation of Labour’ established by Plekhanov. It smuggled Marxist lit into Russia
- Attracted a dedicated, educated following including Vladimir Ulyanov
Describe the Social Democrat Party (SD’s)
- Founded in 1898
- Lenin wrote for the party paper ‘Iskra’ and wrote a pamphlet ‘What is to be done’
- In 1903, disagreements between Lenin and Martov caused a split
What were the differences between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks
Bolsheviks - Led by Lenin, wanted a small, centrally controlled, highly disciplined party
- Refused to work with other parties and TUs
- Believed the bourgeois and proletarian revolutions could occur simultaneously
Mensheviks - Led by Martov, wanted a democratic party open to all
- Was willing to cooperate with other parties and TUs
- Believed the workers should lead the revolution and that a proletarian revolution could only happen after the bourgeois revolution
How did the SR’s and the SD’s react to the October Manifesto
Rejected it, and called for a general strike organised by StPt Soviet in Nov 1905
What was the issue with the radical opposition after 1905
No clear leader - Trotsky (Chairman of StPt) Soviet exiled to Siberia
- Lenin fled to Finland in December 1905
What conclusion can be made about the Tsarist government and its opposition come 1914
The government failed to pacify working class discontent but the Tsarist autocracy was not in grave danger before 1914
When did Germany declare war on Russia
(19th) July 1914
How did the initial outbreak of war change Russia
- Initial surge of patriotism across Russia
e.g Strikes ceased and Duma voted for war credits - All-Russian Zemstvo Union, for sick and wounded soldiers created at the end of July, with Prince Lvov (a Kadet) as President
- St Petersburg renamed as Petrograd to sound less German.
List some early military defeats suffered by Russia
- Despite some early success vs Austria, the invasion of East Prussia met strong German resistance and resulted in significant defeats
- Battle of Tannenberg (Aug 1914), 300,000 casualties
- Battle of the Masurian Lakes (Sept 1914)
A massive Russian retreat began on both the German and Austrian fronts, and reports of inadequate equipment (e.g. 2 rifles for every 3 soldiers) were published.
List some political impacts of the war between 1915-1917
- Zemstva resented their loss in authority, especially considering they were doing more for medical relief than the government
- Zemstva and Duma accused govt of incompetence e.g. futility of alcohol ban when peasants brewed their own anyway
- See future cards
Describe the ‘Progressive Bloc’
Aug 1915, the Kadets, Octobrists and Progressives formed the prog bloc, effectively demanding a constitutional monarchy in which the Tsar would genuinely share power.
The Tsar suspended the Duma
Describe the Tsar taking over as commander-in-chief of the armed forces
August 1915 - despite lack of military experience
- He was held responsible for the failure of the Brusilov Offensive (June - Aug 1916). A lack of trained officers and Russia’s underdeveloped railway system contributed to the defeat, further increasing opposition.
What major issue did the Russian army have
Despite mobilisising 15 million men between 1914 and 1917, it could not provide sufficient clothing or weapons
How did Tsarina Alexandra and Rasputin cause a fall in confidence of the regime
- Tsarina was deeply unpopular, partly because of her German roots. There were accusations of treason and that she was a saboteur throughout Russia
- Rumours of an affair between Rasputin and Alexandra were created and people over-estimated his influence over government.
- In 17 months, Tsarina appointed 4 PMs as well as rapidly shifting other government ministers, creating chronic government instability. Rapid ministerial turnover.
List some economic impacts of the war
- Costs grew from 1500 million in 1914 to 14500 million in 1918, whilst production slumped as workers and peasants were conscripted
- In Petrograd there was a 300% rise in the cost of living during the war
- Railways and food were prioritised for military supplies, leaving many to starve in the cities. Peasants made the situation worse by hoarding grain as there was nothing to buy.
What were the immediate causes of the February Revolution
Starvation and desperation
- 14th Feb - 100,000 workers from 58 factories went on strike; the Duma demanded the abdication of the Tsar
- 23rd Feb - A march of women on International Women’s Day was swelled by striking workers and militant students, amounting to over 200,000 demonstrators, calling for bread and reform
- 26th Feb - Nich authorised the use of troops and ordered a closure of the Duma
- 27th Feb - Petrograd Garrison mutinied, joining and arming the protestors. The Duma formed a Provisional Committee to take control. The Petrograd Soviet was formed.
- 28th Feb - Order No. 1
- 1st March - Duma and Soviet agreed to support the creation of a PG
- 2nd March - Tsar abdicates
Describe ‘Order No. 1’
28th Feb - Issued by the Petrograd Soviet and proclaimed Soviet authority over the army
When did the Tsar abdicate and what were the ensuing events
2nd March, He abdicated in favour of his brother, Grand Duke Mikhail, who refused the throne
This left the PG and PS in charge
What was the agreement made between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet
Dual Power
The PS agreed to accept the PG’s authority until a constituent assembly could be elected to draw up a new constitution
Describe the members of the PG and PS
Prince Lvov as PM, with a government comprising mostly of liberals (Octobrists and Kadets)
Kerensky was the only member of both the PG and the PS
The PS mainly comprised of radicals, especially SR’s and Mensheviks
What promises were made by the PG which were accepted by the PS
- Civil liberties
- Amnesty for political prisoners
- Abolition of capital punishment and exile
What did the PC and PS disagree on
- Conduct of the war
- Peasants’ right to take over land
Why did support for the PG decline
- They decided to continue the war which led to mass public demonstrations and resignations of government ministers
- In the countryside peasants took the law into their own hands and seized land
- In the cities, food supplies were chaotic, real wages fell and inflation rose
Describe the April Theses and how it helped Lenin unite the Bolsheviks under his leadership
When Lenin returned from exile in April 1917, he delivered a rousing speech which was later published as the ‘April Theses’
- He demanded all power should be given to the Soviets, and end to the war and land for the peasants.
- Essentially just telling Russians what they wanted to hear
- It helped unite the Bolsheviks under his leadership and over the next few months he managed to win over the Bolshevik Central Committee to his belief in non-cooperation with the PG
Describe the July Days
A period of unrest characterised by armed uprisings from soldiers, sailors and factory workers on 3rd to 7th July. Several prominent Bolsheviks were arrested, including Trotsky
Describe the Kornilov Affair
- Kornilov, commander-in-chief of the PG armed forces believed he could restore strong government so prepared to bring loyal troops into Petrograd.
- Kerensky opposed the ‘coup’ and armed the PS inc. Bolsheviks to defend the city
- This increased support for the Bolsheviks and further weakened Kerensky’s position
What figures demonstrate the growth of the Bolsheviks in 1917
Feb 1917, 23,000 members
Oct 1917, 200,000 members
- Also built a force of 10,000 Red Guards by October
- In September, the Bolsheviks gained a majority on both the Moscow and Petrograd Soviets (Trotsky becoming chairman of the latter)
Why did the Bolsheviks grow so quickly in 1917
Because they refused any compromise with the increasingly unpopular PG, the Bolsheviks grew at the expense of the Mensheviks and the SR’s, who continued to work with the PG
Briefly describe the October Revolution
9th Oct - Petrograd Soviet set up a Military Revolutionary Committee under Trotsky, claiming responsibility for the defence of Petrograd
10th Oct - Lenin won central committee vote for an ‘armed uprising’ to replace the PG with the PS
24th-25th Oct - 8000 Red Guards and Kronstadt Sailors seized key positions around Petrograd. Kerensky fled.
26th Oct - Red Guards and civilliains stormed the Winter Palace and arrested the remaining members of the PG
How did the reaction of socialists from other parties to the revolution benefit the Bolsheviks
When the Congress of Soviets met the next day, socialists from other parties denounced the ‘coup’
The Mensheviks and most of the SR’s walked out, leaving the Bolsheviks in control
Describe Sovnarkom
A government of commissars. Lenin was Chairman and Trotsky was the Commissar for Foreign Affairs
It had the power to rule by decree without reference to the Soviet, and it was made up exclusively of Bolsheviks
What were some early Sovnarkom decrees
The Decree on Peace called for an immediate end to the war
The Decree on Land ordered all land to be the property of the people
The Decree on Workers’ Control gave workers control over the factories
How did the Bolsheviks suppress the opposition
The early decrees were hugely popular, especially the Decree on Land, which won over peasant support from the SR’s.
Lenin was committed to one-party rule, and rejected forming a government involving all socialist parties
- Anti-Bolshevik newspapers closed down
- Civil servants dismissed and replaced with Bolsheviks
- The Cheka established in December
- Hundreds of Kadets, Menshevik and opposing SR’s were arrested
Describe the elections to the Constituent Assembly
Lenin allowed the elections to go ahead because he knew there would be outrage if he didn’t
However, the SR’s won most of the seats. Lenin was appalled and announced that an assembly made up of different parties would be a bourgeois parliamentary democracy
The assembly met for one day and was closed down.
Lenin decided that the Bolsheviks would rule on BEHALF of the proletariat
