Towards a New Consensus (1987-1997) Flashcards
1
Q
Describe Thatcher’s tax policy 1987-1990
A
- Supply-side policy of tax cutting
- March 1988 budget, reduced the rate of income tax a further 40% for the rich and 25% for all other income taxpayers
2
Q
Describe interest rates and inflation 1987 to 1990
A
- Consumer credit and public spending increase fuelled inflation
- Lawson introduced successive increases in interest rates, to reach a minimum lending rate of 15% by October 1989
- Inflation was at 8.3% by June 1989
3
Q
Describe privatisation 1987 to 1990
A
- The privatisation agenda was renewed in earnest
- This time involved British steel, water and electricity
- Privatisation was relatively popular but this did not extend to the privatisation of electricity and water supply
- Some felt Thatcher was now denationalising out of principle rather than for economic gains
Quangos:
* Thatcher’s promise in 1979 had been to demolish ‘Quangos’ (bodies regulating private industry)
* Privatisation actually led to more quangos for each the major industries e.g OFTEL, OFGAS, OFWAT
4
Q
Describe Black Monday
A
- Stock market crash in October 1987
- 24% off stock prices
- £50 billion wiped off City stock values and by the end of the week the loss was nearly £102 billion
- Thousands lost savings
- Values were not recovered even into the 90’s
5
Q
Describe imports 1987 to 1990
A
- Non-oil imports were rising
- By 1989, the deficit reached nearly £20 billion, the largest figure on record
6
Q
Describe the rise of housing 1987 to 1990
A
- From 1979, Thatcher had promoted a ‘property owning democracy’ (e.g Right to Buy scheme and tax relief on mortgage interest)
- House prices shot up
- Home ownership increased from 54% to 65% of the population, but many went into debt
7
Q
Describe the fall of housing 1987 to 1990
A
- In 1989, the housing market collapsed
- Interest rates soared
- House prices slumped and 2 million found themselves with houses worth less than they had borrowed to buy them (‘negative equity’)
8
Q
Describe conservative by-election losses 1987 to 1990
A
- May 1989, the Conservatives were heavily defeated in the Glamorgan by-election
- It was widely believed that campaigning by local GP’s against government health plans were responsible
- Further by-election defeats followed
9
Q
Describe loss of Conservative government members 1987 to 1990
A
- Thatcher lost loyal colleague Willie Whitelaw due to ill health
- Norman Tebbit had fallen out with Thatcher and left government for the backbenches
- Leon Brittan had left for a job in Brussels
- Edwina Currie was forced to resign over the salmonella in eggs crisis
10
Q
Describe Thatcher’s opponents within the government
A
- By 1989, Thatcher was at odd with several colleagues
- Nigel Lawson quarrelled with her constantly
- Geoffrey Howe at the Foreign Office disagreed with her over foreign affairs and Europe
- John Biffen publicly criticised her abrasive style
- There was doubt throughout the Conservative party that Thatcher could win the next election
11
Q
Describe the introduction of the Poll tax
A
- Intended to replace the system of local rates, based on property values, with a flat charge for services set by local gov
- New poll tax meant everybody had to pay, not just householders
- Poll tax introduced in Scotland in 1989 and a year later into England and Wales
- Poll tax came into force in April 1990 and there were huge riots, many of them violent
12
Q
Describe political opposition to the poll tax
A
- It was strongly opposed by Labour, the Alliance and the nationalist parties
- The nationalists and far left urged supporters not to pay
- Labour confined its opposition to parliamentary pressure and peaceful protests
- November 1989, Militant Tendency had set up the Anti Poll-Tax Federation
13
Q
Describe the main riot against the Poll tax
A
- 30th March 1990
- The weekend before the charge was to come into operation
- 250,000 people protest in Trafalgar Square
- 5,000 people were injured including rioters, police and bystanders
- Over 300 arrests were made
14
Q
Describe the consequences of opposition to the Poll tax
A
- Edward Heath and other leading Tory’s voiced their opposition
- Some local Tory councillors resigned from the party
- Labour registered some by-election successes
- The poll tax was withdrawn in 1991
- It was replaced by a new council tax, based on property values and the assumption that each home had two adults (25% reduction for single adult occupancy)
15
Q
Describe the Education Reform Act
A
- 1988
Laid down the national curriculum:
* All children must take maths, english and science as core subjects
* Religious studies were compulsory
- Testing of all pupils at ages 7, 11, 14 and 16 was introduced
- Changes to control and budgeting of schools
16
Q
Describe the limitations of education 1987 to 1990
A
- By international standards, school were still underfunded
Conservative critics:
* Discipline in schools had broken down
* Poor teacher training
* Lack of testing
Left-wing critics:
Underfunding, the problems of immigrant children, the failure to ensure that more girls took science, the imbalance between state and independent schools
17
Q
Describe student grants 1987 to 1990
A
- Student grants were frozen with loans offered as an alternative
- Increasing concerns that students from less well off backgrounds would be impeded from applying
18
Q
Describe the ‘market mechanism’
A
- 1989, Kenneth Clarke (Minister for Health) proposed ‘market mechanism’
- Doctors could have control over their own budgets
- Hospitals could contract out of the NHS altogether
- Thatcher had claimed in 1982 that the NHS was ‘safe’ with her but many were not convinced
19
Q
Describe NHS funding 1987 to 1990
A
- Britain spent less on health than any western European country and the US
- Many hospitals were shabby with inadequate equipment
- Nurses, doctors and other staff felt underpaid, undervalued and overworked
- The BMA denounced government policy and won public support
20
Q
Describe changes to the NHS 1987 to 1990
A
- Massive rise in prescription charges over the 80s
- Dental services were virtually private by 1990
- Doctors were expected to prescribe cheaper non-generic medicines rather than well known brands
21
Q
Describe the Single European Act and the FP changes that followed it
A
- 1986, Thatcher had signed the Single European Act
- This appeared pretty pro-European but Thatcher later became less positive to Europe
- Thatcher later claimed she hadn’t understood had the SEA would affect Britain’s relationship with Europe
- To counter the direction Thatcher feared the EEC was moving in she made a speech in Bruges in 1988 to set out her vision of the future of Europe
22
Q
Describe the Bruges speech
A
- September 1988
- Defended her ‘New Right’ viewpoint which coupled national sovereignty with free market economics
- ‘We have not… rolled back the frontiers of the state in Britain only to see them… reimposed by a European super-state’
23
Q
Describe the consequences of the Bruges speech
A
- It was difficult to see how Thatcher’s vision of a single market could become a reality without an increase in European institutions to manage it
- European reaction to her speech was hostile
- In Britain, the Bruges speech inspired the several MPs to form the Bruge Group to focus opposition to any European federal state
24
Q
Describe the expansion of the EEC 1987 to 1990
A
- Thatcher was in favour of expanding the EEC to include the new states in Eastern Europe
- She wanted to expand free trade and ensure that communism was truly defeated
- It was also partly to weaken the power of the European Commission in Brussels
25
Describe the Delors report
* Delors led a study on a single monetary system, published 1989
A 3 stage route was proposed for the Economic and Monetary Union:
* It involved membership of the ERM, currency alignment, and finally establishment of a single currency and a central European Bank
* A currency union could lead on to a common budgetary policy which could affect each member’s economic and social policies
26
Describe the British response to the Delors report
* Thatcher believed the pound sterling was a symbol of national sovereignty and made her opposition to the EMU clear
* Nigel Lawson quickly put forward an alternative scheme for competing currencies throughout Europe but was discredited as trying to steal the initiative from Delors
27
Describe the Social Charter and its impact
* The Social Charter laid down minimal conditions for education, employment and social security
* It was feared it would lead to further interventionism and threaten British competitiveness
* Thatcher strongly opposed it
* Delors then spoke at the TUC Conference, receiving a standing ovation for outlining plans to protect workers rights
* Labour and the trade unions moved back to favouring the EC
28
Describe the political problems for Thatcher with regards to the EEC
* Labour easily won most seats in the 1989 elections to the European parliament
* Howe and Lawson insisted on a commitment to joining the ERM, threatening resignation if Thatcher did not agree
* Thatcher appeared to agree to stage one and delayed stages 2 and 3 and refused to accept the Social Charter
* Howe and Lawson resigned
29
Describe the impact of the reunification of Germany on the EC
* Thatcher upset the Germans through lack of interest in reunification
* Comments by Nicholas Ridley that the ERM was a German attempt to take over the whole of Europe were badly received and he was forced to resign
* France saw the EC as a way to control Germany while Britain saw the EC as a means by which Germany could take control
* Reunification was supported by the US so the British position had to be reassessed
* The Tory party became even more divided
30
Describe British entry to the ERM
* Britain finally joined the ERM in 1990, under the influence of the new Chancellor, John Major
* France and Germany set 1994 as the date for stage 2 of the Delors Plan
* Speeches by Thatcher undermined her chancellor and led the French and Germans to believe she wanted to destroy the ERM
31
Describe the rise of Labour 1987 to 1990
* Kinnock had firmly established Labour leadership (he gained control of the National Executive and defeated Tony Benn in a leadership challenge)
* Labour accepted the mixed economy, moved away from the far left and unilateralism, was warmth to Europe and wanted union controls and stronger law and order
* In 1989 Labour led strongly in opinion polls
* In the European elections Labour won 45 seats to the Tories 32, the first defeat for Thatcher in 10 years
32
Describe public opinion of Thatcherism 1987 to 1990
* Comparisons were drawn with Macmillan’s government in the 1960s - frequent Cabinet reshuffles, acute balance of payments difficulties, a shaky pound and high interest rates
* Environment issues (land conservation, acid rain and the greenhouse effect) were largely ignored by the Tories
* Consumption and wealth creation did not always work well with quality of life
33
Describe the final fall of Thatcher
* Europe was an embarrassing weakness and Howe performed a dramatic resignation with a speech, fiercely attacking Thatcher in the House of Commons
* Anthony Meyer agreed to be a ‘stalking horse’ (a weak contender who forces an election in the expectation of a stronger candidate then joining in)
* 33MPs voted for him, 24 abstained
* Michael Heseltine challenged for leadership
* Thatcher won the first ballot but by only 52 votes so she accepted the MPs loss of confidence and resigned
* The second ballot was won by John Major
34
Summarise the economy 1990 to 1997
* Taxation levels were higher than they had been in the 1970’s
* Britain’s long term economic decline relative to other nations did not stop
35
Describe the impact of joining the ERM on the British economy
* The ERM required Britain to maintain a fixed rate of exchange (2.95 German Marks to the pound)
* By September 1992, the British currency was under strain and they needed to devalue or face even further decrease in output and employment
36
Describe Black Wednesday
* 16th September 1993
* At 7pm, Lamont announced the decision to leave the ERM live on television
* The value of the sterling was down 20%
* £5 billion had been wasted trying to stay in the ERM
* Interest rates increased dramatically
* Government credibility was lost
37
Describe the economic consequences of leaving the ERM
* Exchange rates and unemployment down
* The housing market began to pick up
* The US economy was coming out of recession, helping to expand world trade
* The economy was benefiting from the financial deregulation and flexible working practices that the Conservatives had introduced in 1979
* In comparison, the German economy was struggling with the cost of unification and sluggish growth rates compared with Britain
38
Describe the political consequences of leaving the ERM
* The Conservatives were no longer trusted with the economy
* Steep drop of support for the Conservatives in the opinion polls
* Major’s personal authority was badly weakened
* Labour party shot ahead in the polls
* Major himself saw Black Monday as ‘the beginning of the end’
39
Describe the resignation of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Lamont
* In 1993, Lamont proposed extending VAT to domestic fuel
* This provoked widespread anger
* Facing increasing lack of popularity, Lamont was forced to resign in May and was replaced by Kenneth Clark
40
Describe the economy by 1997
* Most economic indicators were positive
* Unemployment was down
* Productivity was up a little
* Consumer spending went up
* Car ownership increased
* House prices rose and negative equity became much less common
* Business was supportive of government policies
* Yet people were reluctant to give Major’s government credit for this
* The ‘feel-good’ factor was missing
41
Describe Major's loss of majority
* Following withdrawal from the ERM, Major’s government lost every by-election
* In 1995, 1,800 council seats were lost
* Following this, the tories lost their House of Commons majority
* By 1996, Major was forced to rely on support from the Ulster Unionists
42
Describe the decline of coal 1990 to 1997
* Demand for coal was still falling
* British coal cost twice as much as importing coal from Australia, USA and Columbia
* The remainder of the industry was sold to the private sector for less than it was worth
* By June 1993, the mining workforce was down to 44,000 - less than half what it had been in 1990
43
Describe the NHS 1990 to 1997
* Further reorganised to create an ‘internal market’
* Led to widespread complaints of burgeoning bureaucracy and inequality
* Fund holding GPs in control of their own budget seemed to be able to get a better deal for their patients than non-fund holding colleagues
44
Describe education 1990 to 1997
* Reduction of the power of the local education authorities by giving schools powers of management
* Introduction of national testing and performance league tables
* Changes to teacher training
* Introduction of a system of national inspection, under another new quango, OFSTED
* All of this had some opposition within the teaching profession
45
Describe privatisation 1990 to 1997
* Continued
* Spending was increased by selling capital assets
* The coal industry was privatised in 1994 and the railways in 1996
* Attempt to privatise the Post Office was abandoned following public opposition
* Introduction of the Private Finance Initiative (PFI)
46
Describe the Private Finance Initiative
* Public-private partnerships
* Private companies would fund infrastructure improvements and deliver public services that the State would pay for over the length of the contract
47
Describe the Citizens Charter
* Introduced in 1991
* An attempt to give public sector users more power over the quality of services by providing information about the standards they should expect
* For example, in education, there would be more testing and schools would publish results
48
Describe problems with the Citizens Charter
* Not all of this was effective
* For example ‘The Cones Hotline’ - a number that motorists could call if motorway lanes were closed without any sign of road works - simply became a meaningless complaint line
49
Describe civil liberties 1990 to 1997
* Suffered a sustained attack under Home Secretary Michael Howard
* Restricted rights of free assembly
* Gave the police powers to control raves and travellers
* Abolished the right to silence (protection against self incrimination)
* Obliged the courts to impose fixed sentence for certain crimes (increased prison population)
50
Describe scandals over Tory party funding
* Asil Nadir, who broke bail and fled to Cyprus, had contributed £440,000
* Lord McAlpine, Tory Treasurer, also admitted that his party had taken money from Hong Kong nationals and American businessmen
* There were accusations about money from Saudi Arabia
* This led to questions about possible favours to individuals and potential influence on Tory policy
* By July 1993, a Gallup poll revealed that the Conservatives were the most unpopular government since polls started in 1938
51
Describe Back to Basics
* Autumn 1993, Major launched a ‘back to basics’ movement emphasising family, education and morality
* By Feb 1994, it had become a major point of contention and difficulty
* 8 Tory Mp's and 2 other prominent conservatives due to adultery, corruption and bizarre sexual practices
* Resignations and a suicide followed
52
Describe the Scott Enquiry
* 1993/94
* Disclosed illegal arms deals with Iraq in the late 80s
* Several Tory MPs were implicated
53
Describe the 'cash for questions' scandal
* By 1996
* Investigative journalism revealed some Tory Mp's were performing political favours for money
54
Describe Conservative divisions over Europe 1990 to 1997
* Major was forced to reduce pro-Europe policies due to a predominantely anti-Europe cabinet and party
* Major provoked a leadership challenge in 1995 and beat far-right candidate Redwood
* Despite this, strong divison continued
55
Describe increasing division with Ireland 1990 to 1997
Anglo-Irish Agreement deteriorated and the south became dismayed by the British decision to apply the brake to the reform process
They disagreed on human rights issues:
* Stalker Affair
* Birmingham Six
* Guildford Four
* Maguire Family
56
Describe the rise of the IRA 1990 to 1997
* Assisted by Libyan ruler, Colonel Gaddafi
* Sent 4 shipments of arms including 1000 rifles, heavy machine guns and anti-aircraft guns
* Britain knew nothing of the Libyan link, the worst intelligence lapse for decades
57
Describe IRA violence throughout Europe 1990 to 1997
* British troops came under fire in Germany
* 1987 the IRA bombed Rememberence Day service in Enniskillen, NI - 11 killed - shocked world
* 1991 - IRA exploded substantial motor bomb near John Major
* 1992 - IRA bombed the City
58
Describe the IRA bombing of the City
* 1992
* London's financial heartland
* Inflicted more financial damage than all other 10,000 bombs which had gone off in Northern Ireland
* Baltic Exchange bombing caused more than £700 million in damage
59
Describe 'back channel' negotiations during the Peace Process 1993-94
* Secret IRA negotiations with Sinn Fein
* A web of secret talks between Sinn Fein + church + state
* This was all in secret as they were breaching the general rule that mainstream politicians should not speak to those associated with violence
* Gerry Adams (of Sinn Fein) and John Hume (leader of SDLP), two dominant figures in northern nationalism
* By 1993 a message a week was passing back and forth
60
Describe the role of John Major in the Peace Process 1993-94
* Major recognised what a significant issue NI was
* He took risks by communicating with Hume, Reynolds and Adams
* If it had been revealed he may have lost the support of the 9 Ulster Unionist MPs that were helping the government to survive
61
Describe the role of John Hume's Peace Decleration in the Peace Process 1993-94
* In 1991, Hume wrote a draft for an agreement between Britain and Ireland stating that Britain would not get in the way of unification and persuading Unionists to end their violence
* Hume communicated with Reynolds, Adams and Major
* By 1993, Hume and Adams announced they had made considerable progress and were ready to put forward a report to Dublin
62
Describe the violence that followed John Hume's decleration of peace
* Increase in violence
* IRA attempted to assassinate leading loyalists
* Loyalist gunmen went on a rampage in retalliation
* However, this actually sparked a fresh desire for peace
63
Describe the Downing Street Declaration
* Dec 1993
* The culmination of peace agreement efforts
* 'The British government agree that is for the people of the island of Ireland alone...to bring about a united Ireland, if that is their wish'
64
Describe the IRA ceasefire
* 31st August 1994
* IRA announce a ceasfire
* After 25 years of conflict and 3,000 deaths
65
Describe the IRA's return to violence
* The IRA got impatient with the peace process and returned to violence
* In 1996, bomb attacks damaged the financial district at Canary Wharf and the centre of Manchester
66
Describe loss of support after Major replaced Thatcher
* The recession continued
* Labour gained in the opinion polls
* The conservatives lost 900 council seats in the local elections, May 1991
67
Describe the economic problems faced by Major before the 1992 election
* **Unemployment grew from 1.9 million in Jan 1991 to 2.6 million by December**
* **The housing market remained at its most depressed since 1945**
* Business and consumer confidence remained poor
* **Record number of business failures and house and flat repossessions**
* Trade deficit was reduced but still in the red
* Inflation fell but was still higher than in most other industrialised nations
68
Describe the opinion polls in the run up to the 1992 election
* The Conservatives had lost by-elections to both Labour and the Liberals over the past 2 years
* At the beginning of April, Labour 41%, Tories 35% and Lib-Dems 20%
* The day before the election, Labour and Conservatives 38%, Liberals 20%
69
Describe the Labour opposition in the 1992 election
* Campaign was positive and moderate
* Kinnock was enthusiastic and effective
* The 'shadow budget' produced by John Smith, drew attention to the likelihood of tax rises under labour
* Kinnock was heavily targeted by the Tory press
70
Describe the impact of the British electoral system on the 1992 election
* Of the MPs elected in 1992, 170 had majorities of 10% or less compared to 151 in 1987
* 21 of the Tory seats, were secured with majorities of less than 1,000, and 11 with majorities less than 600
71
Describe the impact of the press on the 1992 election
* 7 of 11 national daily paper backed the Conservatives
* Conservative supporting papers accounted for 67% newspaper sales
* The Sun, the Daily Mail and the Daily Express were among these papers
* 'If Kinnock wins today, will the last person to leave Britain please turn out the lights' and 'It's The Sun Wot Won It'
72
Describe the Tory 1992 election campaign
* More low-key
* Conservatives attacked Labour's spending plans claimining they would lead to higher inflation and taxation
* Sought to win over SDP/ Lib Dem voters
73
Describe the results of the 1992 election
* A narrow, but unexpected, victory for the Conservatives with 42% to Labours 35%
* Labour made gains in Scotland, Wales and the north of England
* Labour failed to secure more than half the working class vote
74
Describe how Labour began to modernise after the 1983 election
* After the 1983 election, Labour replaced Foot with Neil Kinnock
* Abandoned more left wing aspects of of 1983 election manifesto
* Publicly criticised prominent left wingers such as Derek Hatton of Liverpool, Ken Livingstone of London County Council and Arthur Scargill of the NUM
* Far left in the grass roots were pushed out
* The process was not yet complete
75
Describe re-organisation of the Labour party following the 1987 election
* Became more professional in its presentation
* The mastermind of this was Peter Mandelson, who became Kinnock’s director of communications in 1985
* John Snow became Shadow Chancellor in 1987
76
Describe the demise of Labour's hard left
* Neil Kinnock dominated the National Executive with his ‘soft left’ allies
* In 1988, Tony Benn tried to challenge Kinnock’s leadership but lost, Kinnock had an 8 to 1 majority
* 1989 party conference, Ken Livingstone was thrown off the NEC
77
Decsribe the change to Labour policies following the 1987 election
* More mixed economy
* More receptive towards Europe
* Acceptance of the need to legally curb union power
* Law and order to protect working class citizens, particularly from violent crime
* October 1989 party conference, Kinnock rejected unilateralism
78
Describe John Smith as Labour leader
* Kinnock was succeeded by shadow chancellor, John Smith
* Smith gave a greater sense of intellectual self-confidence but was also a more cautious politician who reflected the values of Old Labour
* Progress was made in modernising and bring the party closer to the centre
79
Describe how Smith changed Labour's European policy
* Embraced European membership as a platform for economic advancement
* The ‘Social Charter’ was particularly popular with labour and the TUC
* Many of his leading men, such as Gordon Brown and Tony Blair, were pro-Europe
* Leading anti-European, Bryan Gould, resigned in disgust in autumn 1992 and returned to New Zealand
* Now had a much more united Europe policy than the Conservatives
80
Describe how Smith changed Labour's taxation policy
* Shadow chancellor, Gordon Brown, emphasised that Labour no longer wanted high public expenditure, taxing of the rich or state planning
* Much effort was devoted to improving Labour’s relations with the CBI (Confederation of British Industry)
* Several influential figures in the business world announced Labour sympathies
81
Describe how Smith changed Labour's law and order policy
* Shadow Home Secretary, Tony Blair, wanted to change preconception that Labour was soft on crime
* He declared Labour would be ‘Tough on crime, tough on the causes of crime’
82
Describe how Smith changed Labour's trade union policy
* Smith wanted to reduce the Trade Unions control of Labour
* He came into conflict with TUC leaders in summer 1993 over his efforts to promote ‘One Man One Vote’ (Creating individual trade unionists as party members and ending the trade union block vote at the party conference)
* Smith won at the party conference in October but only by 0.2%
* Smith did not push any further after this
83
Describe the death of John Smith
* Labour was 20 points ahead in the polls in spring 1994
* Then, John Smith died unexpectedly of a heart attack on 12th May 1994
84
Describe Tony Blair winning leadership
* In the Electoral College in 1994, Blair won an easy victory with 57% of the vote
* 60% of MP’s vote, 58% of party membership and 52% of the union vote
85
Describe Blair's control of the party
* Built up great personal appeal
* Did not allow dissent. When Claire Short appeared to make noise about legalising cannabis, she was ruthlessly shut down.
* 'You follow your party, I lead mine' - said to Major in the Commons
86
Describe the modernisation of Labour party machinery under Blair
* Sophisticated technology at control center in Milbank
* Followed shifts in voter opinion using focus groups
* Emphasis on media relations and 'spin-doctors'
87
Describe Labour policy under Blair
* Right of the centre
* All traditional policies scrapped and replaced with pro-business, low taxation and tough on crime policies
* From a peak of nearly 13 million union member votes, Labour now only claimed 6.75 million
88
Describe the by-elections of 1993 to 1997
- In the May 1993 local elections, the Tories lost 452 seats
- In 1995, they lost 1,800 seats
- After the 1996 elections, there were only 4,600 Conservative councilors compared to Labour's 10,800
89
Describe the results of the 1997 election
* Conservatives worst defeat since 1832
* 10.9% swing to labour
* Labour won 419 seats to the Conservative 165
90
Describe AIDS during this period
* The first case was recorded in 1981
* Referred to as the ‘gay plague’
* AIDS was particularly controversial as it mostly affected gay men and intravenous drug users
* The government started a prevention campaign in 1985, with needle exchanges and leaflets distributed to households and schools
* Billboards and TV’s advertised ‘don’t die of ignorance’
* 1987, Diana, Princess of Wales, challenged these prejudices and shook hands with an AIDS patient at Royal Middlesex Hospital
91
Describe Section 28
* ‘Loony Left’ councils were accused of ‘promoting’ homosexual lifestyles by funding support groups
* There was outcry in 1986 over a book, ‘Jenny Lives With Eric and Martin’, which was stocked in some London libraries
* Section 28 was passed in 1988
* This banned the promotion of homosexuality by local authorities
* This was not directly aimed at schools but many people believed that it made it illegal to discuss homosexuality in schools
92
Describe the work of queer rights activists
* Used direct action, threatening to ‘out’ gay clergy and MPs
* Stonewall backed test legal cases at the European Court of Human Rights, challenging the unequal age of consent and the ban on homosexuals in the armed forces
* This led to a reduction in the age of consent for gay men from 21 to 18 in 1994, and then again to 16 in 2000
* In 2000, the ban on homosexuals in the military was lifted
93
Describe the moral panic around marriage
* Divorce rate hit a record high in the 1990s
* Percentage of babies born to unmarried parent went from 12% in the early 1980s to 30% in the early 1990s
* In 1992 Peter Lillet, Secretary of State for Social Security, sang a song to the Conservative Party Conference including the words ‘There’s young ladies who get pregnant just to jump the housing queue/ And dads who won’t support the kids/ of ladies they have… kissed’
* To counter this, the Child Support Agency was set up in 1993, to make sure that absent parents paid maintenance for their children
94
Describe the moral panic with regards to contraception
* Victoria Gillick campaigned against the availability of contraceptive advice to girls under the age of consent
* The high court ruled that contraceptive advice could only be given to girls under the age of consent if they had their parents agreement
* Overruled by the House of Lords in 1985
95
Describe the moral panic with regards to TV and film
* Mary Whitehouse continued her campaign into the late 1980’s
* Had influence on the passing of the Video Recording Act 1994 (ensured that videos had British film classifications attached to them)
96
Describe attitudes towards the monarchy
* Marriages of 3 out of 4 of the queens children broke down
* Extramarital affairs, including recordings of telephone conversations, were all over the tabloids
* Public disquiet about the financing of the restoration of Windsor Castle after the devastating fire in 1992
* The Queen agreed to pay tax on her private income and to reduction in the civil list
* The Princess of Wales revealed poor treatment at the hands of the royal family
* In 1997, Diana died in a car crash and the Queen was accused of not caring while the country mourned
97
Describe attitudes towards the arts
* Young British Artists (YBA) challenged ideas of what art was
* They created art from unusual materials including dead animals and ephemeral detritus
* Sensation exhibition in 1997
98
Describe youth culture
* In the late 80’s, acid house dance music with psychedelic edge arrived from the US
* 1988 and 1989 were called the ‘Second Summer of Love’
* Increase in raves, free parties and the rise of ecstasy led to a moral panic and backlash
* Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994
99
Describe the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act
* 1994
* Gave more powers to police to break up raves
* ‘Including sounds wholly or predominantly characterised by the emission of repetitive beats’
100
Describe environmental action
* A series of protests against road development started at the Twyford Down M3 extension in 1992 and spread to other sites including the Newbury bypass and M11 link road
* United a wide range of people including middle class, first time protesters
* They delayed or blocked work, climbed and chained themselves to trees that were due to be uprooted
101
Describe improvements for women
* 1990s saw ‘third wave feminism’
* Riot Grrrl movement included female bands such as Kikini Kill and Huggy Bear
* ‘Girl power’ was led by the Spice Girls
* Under Lawsons reforms in 1988, a man was no longer responsible for his wife’s tax returns
* Illegitimate children accounted for 25% of all births by 1988
* Increasing number of marriages ended in divorce with women more likely to retain custody
102
Describe limitations of the position of women
* Women could not be ordained in the CofE until 1992 and continued to be excluded as Bishops
* **1990, less than 10% businesses were women owned**
* **Only 21 of the top 200 companies had women in their boardrooms**
* Only 12 of 401 Oxbridge professors were women
* **Women earned 20% less than men in business, industry and gov when doing similar work**
* **1994, 90% of top civil servants were men**
* At the Department of Employment, only 3 of 719 typists were men
103
Describe the lack of female politicians
* 24 MPs in 1945, 41 in 1987 and 142 after the 1997 election
* 1990, no female Law Lords
* 1990, only one of 80 High Court judges was female
104
Describe race relations progress
* There were no full scale race riots during this period
* Riots in 1991 and 1992 involved mainly young white men on deprived council estates
* In 1987, four non-white MPs were elected, the first since 1920s, and all still held their seats in 1992
* Britain started to be seen as more comfortable with multiculturalism
105
Describe the murder of Stephen Lawrence
* 1993
* A black A-level student was murdered in a racially motivated attack by a gang of white youths at a bus stop in southeast London
* The identity of the youths was believed to be known but the CPS decided that there was not sufficient evidence to convict them
106
Describe the developments following the murder of Stephen Lawrence
* The actions of the police were widely criticised
* Stephen’s parents failed to get any convictions in a private prosecution but continued to campaign for justice
* Following a campaign in the Daily Mail in 1998, the Labour government ordered a public enquiry into the case chaired by a High Court Judge
* The MacPherson Report concluded the Met police were not corrupt but had been incompetent and ‘institutionally racist’
107
Describe areas of contention in race relations
* Sharp increase in asylum seekers from violent upheavals in places such as Somalia, Afghanistan and Iraq
* Continued immigration from the Commonwealth
* Many of immigrants were Muslim and islamophobia increased
* The publication of 'Satanic Verses'
108
Describe the publication of 'Satanic Verses'
* 1988
* British Indian author, Salman Rushdie
* Was considered blasphemous by many muslims
* The Iranian Ayatollah issued a fatwa sentencing the author to death, and Rushdie had to go into hiding
* British muslims were strongly divided on the issue
109
Describe the Maastricht Treaty
* Signed 1992
* Set up a European Union (the EU)
* Common economic, foreign and security, and justice policy
* European parliament was strengthened
110
Describe Britain's 'opt outs' under the Maastricht Treaty
* Opted out of Social Chapter (based on earlier Social Charter)
* Britain and Denmark retained the right to later opt out of the single currency
111
Describe the problems that Britain had with the Maastricht Treaty
* Increased spending on pan-European infrastructure projects
* Increasing cost of the CAP
* Social Chapter opt out circumvented
112
Describe the ways in which the the Maastricht Treaty Social Chapter opt out was circumvented
* EU insisted on equal treatment of men and women regarding retirement age
* Rulings of the European court were made on health and safety such as the 48 hour week
113
Describe the increasing division over Europe by the end of Major's term
* The Referendum Party emerged in 1997
* EU ban on British exports due to BSE (Mad Cow disease)
* Major was forced to promise his party the opportunity to vote on European Single Currency
114
Describe Britain's relationship with the US during this period
* By 1989, Germany appeared to be closer to the US than Britain
* Regan retired in Jan 1989 and relations with the new President, George Bush, were much less warm
115
Describe the end of the Cold War
* 1989, the 'year of miracles' as communism collapsed across Europe
* By 1990, Berlin Wall had fallen, Germany was reunifying and the Soviet Union was collapsing
116
Describe Thatcher's role in ending the Cold War
* Determination to confront the USSR
* Willingness to negotiate with Gorbachev
117
Describe the confrontations that helped bring an end to the Cold War
* NATO military exercises in the North Atlantic
* Soviet jets shot down a Korean passenger jet which had strayed into Soviet airspace
* Cruise missiles stationed in Europe
* US plan for 'Star Wars' anti-missile shield
118
Describe negotiations with Gorbachev
* Thatcher and Gorbachev met for the first time in 1984
* 'He and I can do business together'
119
Describe the Gulf War
* Kuwait possessed 13% of world oil
* Iraq invaded in 1990
* Initially economic sanctions were imposed by the UN, followed by military action
* Edward Heath and the UN Secretary General made personal visits to Hussein
* Britain sent 45,000 service personnel to the Gulf, second only to the US
120
Describe the negative impacts of the Gulf War
Questions about:
* The government in Kuwait
* The extent of civilian casualties in Iraq
* Morality of British foreign policy and arms dealing
121
Describe the positive impacts of the Gulf War
* Arose under Thatcher but really benefited Major
* Major temporarily became the most popular PM for 30 years
122
Describe the problems in the Balkans
* From 1989, the Yugoslav president became a more extreme Serbian nationalist
* In 1991, Slovenia declared independence and Yugoslavia began to break up
* April 1992, war began in Bosnia
123
Describe European attempts to intervene in the Balkans
* Initially attempted diplomacy but this failed
* August 1992, Major hosts an EU-UN conference in London. A UN peacekeeping force is put in place.
* October 1992, the Vance-Owen plan set out a lasting settlement
* At the massacre at Srebrenica in July 1995, Dutch UN peacekeepers were ordered not to intervene and 7,000+ Bosnian men and boys were murdered
Pretty much all European intervention was unsuccessful
124
Describe the end of war in the Balkans
* Following the siege of Sarajevo and Srebrenica, the US intervened
* US air strikes
* Peace conference at Dayton, Ohio
* Peace treaty signed in Paris, December 1995
* Guaranteed Bosnian independence, protected by a UN force, with economic support from the international community
