The Affluent Society (1951 - 1964) Flashcards
1
Q
Affluence 1951 - 1964
A
- Average weekly earnings = £7.50 (1950) to £18 (1964)
- Unemployment 1948-70 = Less than 2%
- Consumer expenditure 1952-64 = Up 45%
- Private cars = 2.5 mill (1952) to 5 mill (1959)
- Macmillan speech, July 1957, ‘Never had it so good’
- Home ownership = 1964, 44%
- Food rationing ends 1954
- 1,200 miles new or upgraded road 1957-63
- 600,000 people a week at Butlins in 1950’s
- 1.7 mill new houses built 1951-64
- Greater availability of financial credit
2
Q
Describe the labour policies that the Conservatives adopted for 1951
A
Adopted labour policies:
- Welfare State
- Full Employment
- Mixed economy
3
Q
Describe Labour divisons 1951 - 1964
A
- Bevan resigns in 1951 over NHS charges
- 63 MP’s abstain from debate about H-Bomb, against party orders
- Party divided by Nationalisation (Crosland, Bevan & Morrison)
- Divisions between Gaitskill & unilateralists over CND
- 57 Bevanites vote against party rearmament against orders to abstain
4
Q
Economic policies 1951 - 1964
A
- War time controls abolished 1953 - 1954
- National income, 1950 - 1955 = Up 40%
- Imports, 1951-late 50’s = Up to 29%
5
Q
Describe the political factors that lead to the Conservatives downfall in 1964
A
- Satire in the arts
- CND (large protest Sept 1961 about Polaris in Holy Loch)
- France vetoes Britains application to the EEC
- Night of the Long Knives
- Labour revival begins 1958
- Vassal Affair (March 1963)
- Profumo scandal
6
Q
Describe the social factors that lead to the Conservatives downfall in 1964
A
- 1957 Rent Act (allowed landlords to raise rents and benefitted middle class)
- Racial tensions (immigrants, 1958 Notting Hill Race Riots, 1962 Commonwealth Immigration Act)
- Educational inequality (Tripartate system, lack of higher education)
7
Q
Describe the economic factors that lead to the Conservatives downfall in 1964
A
- The failure of Nicky, Neddy and the pay-pause
- The economy under Maudling and Lloyd
- Conservatives leave office October 1964, leaving a government deficit of £750 million
8
Q
Describe the labour resurgence that lead to the Conservatives downfall in 1964
A
- The decline of the Bevanites from 1955
- Gaitskill begins to reunify the party (1955-1963)
- Harold Wilson (leader of the labour party 1963 - 1964) had a much more popular appeal
- 1961 ‘Signposts for the Sixties’
- 1964 Labour election campaign
9
Q
Describe the 1961 ‘Signposts for the Sixties’
A
Labour policy document confidently outlines; the role of economic planning, the need to connect scientists and technicians and the link between planning, technological development and growth.
10
Q
Describe the 1964 labour election campaign
A
- ‘The New Britain’
- Economic planning for growth
- State support for Science and Technology
- Comprehensive schools and the expansion of higher education
11
Q
Describe the economy under RAB Butler (1951-1955)
A
Stop:
- Cuts on imports, credit, travel allowances, food subsidies and meat ration
- By 1952, bank rate = 2-4%
- Reduced balance of payments
Go:
- 1953-1954, war time controls and food rationing removed
- April 1955, £134 million tax cuts (led to acute inflation and slump in balance of payments)
Summary:
- Great short term success, no long term plan
- By 1955 = near full employment, low inflation, no balance of payments problem, low taxes, rising prosperity
- 1950-1955, national income increased 40%
12
Q
Describe the economy under Harold Macmillan (1955-1957)
A
Stop:
- Bank rate increased to 5.5%
- Cut food subsidies
- Reduced public investment
- Introduced Premium Bond scheme
- Added VAT to tobacco
Go:
- Reduced income tax
Summary:
- Successfully stops economy after inflation but reduces affluence
- Replaced Butler in the December reshuffle
- In summer 1957 there was a sterling crisis
13
Q
Describe the economy under Peter Thorneycroft (1957-1958)
A
Stop:
- Cuts to public spending
- Bankrate increased from 5.5% to 7%
Summary:
- Fairly successful but doesn’t manage to completely stop the economy
- Wanted to cut £150 million from public services, Macmillan only allowed £100 million to be cut to prevent unemployment
- Thorneycroft, Powell and Birch resign in 1958 over this disagreement
- Revealed cracks in Macmillan’s cabinet
14
Q
Describe the economy under Derick Heathcoat-Amory (1958-1960)
A
Go:
- By November 1958, bank rate cut to 4%
- 1959, standard rate of income tax goes from 43% to 39%
- 1958-1960, economy grew 6%
Summary:
- Conservatives won the 1959 election but there was now inflation and a massive balance of payments crisis
15
Q
Describe the economy under John Selwyn Lloyd (1960-1962)
A
Stop:
- Bank rate increased to 7%
- Nicky, Neddy and the pay-pause (all fail)
Summary:
- Almost every attempt to stop the economy failed
16
Q
Describe the pay-pause
A
- July 1961
- Abruptly froze pay increases for public sector workers
- Unfair since pay rises still available in the private sector
- Affected beloved nurses
- Could be ignored by powerful employers
- Failed
17
Q
Describe the economy under Reginald Maudling (1962-1964)
A
Go:
- 1963 budget, cuts taxes by £300 million
- Economic growth rate = 4% in 1963 to 6% in 1964
- By 1964, exports 10% higher than 1961, imports 20% higher
- Unemployment in 1963 = 2.6%
Summary:
- Attempted ‘dash for growth’
- Failure that just caused further collapse
18
Q
Describe Nicky
A
- National Incomes Commission
- A voluntary method of wage restraint
- Boycotted by the TUC
- Failed
19
Q
Describe Neddy
A
- National Economic Development Council
- Failed
20
Q
Describe some evidence of change to affluence and living standards
A
- Economy 1951 to 1964, grew 2-3% a year
- Unemployment below 2%
- Pre-war slums cleared and replaced by new towns (e.g Kirby and Harlow)
- Other affluence statistics
21
Q
Describe some evidence of continuity of affluence and living standards
A
- ‘13 wasted years’
- Little encouragement of scientific, technical or managerial education
- Collages of Advanced Technology introduced but not given uni status
- School system virtually ignored (tripartite & 11+)
- Wealth creation and economic efficiency given low priority
- Little done to modernise industry
22
Q
Describe some evidence of change to social class and the establishment
A
- Upper class began to include those in finance, commerce and manufacturing
- Middle class began to include managers, scientists, advertisers and salesmen
- Press coverage of Profumo affair showed decline in deference for the establishment
- Suez Crisis 1956 exposed lying and manipulation in the government
- The rise of the CND from 1958
- 1960’s satire boom
- Criticism in the arts
23
Q
Describe some evidence of continuity of social class and the establishment
A
- Surveys throughout the 50’s and 60’s, consistently found that 2/3rds of the British public self-identified as working class
- The upper class was very focused on tradition, U and non-U speech, food, manners and customs
- Upper-class and government still dominated by old public-school boys
- 1960, still 600 butlers in Britain
- Class system remained very established
24
Q
Describe some evidence of change to culture and criticism
A
1960’s satire boom:
- 1960 - Beyond the Fringe (play)
- 1961 - Private Eye (magazine)
- 1962 - The Week That Was (TV)
Criticism in the arts:
- 1956 - Look Back in Anger
- 1957 - Room at the Top
- 1958 - The Birthday Party
- 1958 - Saturday Night & Sunday Morning
- 1960 - This Sporting Life
- 1962 - A Kind of Loving
25
Describe some evidence of continuity in culture and criticism
- Books by Richard Hoggart, Anthony Sampson and C.P Snow show how Britain is still a class-ridden society
- Not much change to class system or government
- Anti-establishment media heavily criticised by many
26
Describe some evidence of change to race and immigration
- 1948; Empire Windrush, 492 Jamaicans -> 1961; 49,000 India & Pakistan, 66,000 Caribbean, 21,000 Hong Kong, Cyprus & elsewhere
- 1962 Commonwealth Immigration Act - Ends right of unrestricted entry for Commonwealth citizens
- From good attitudes towards the Commonwealth at Queen Elizabeth 2nd coronation to strongly anti-immigration feeling
27
Describe some evidence of continuity in race and immigration
- Continuous racism (Notting Hill Riots 1958, Sir Oswald Mosley, Teddy Boys, 1959 death of Keslo Cochrane)
- Immigrants continued to live in poor areas. Perfectly legal for landlords to stipulate ‘No blacks’. Overcharged for slum housing (e.g Peter Rachman)
- Continued immigration (1950’s = 676,000 immigrants, 1960’s = 1.25 million immigrants)
28
Describe the Notting Hill Riots
- 30th August to 2nd September 1958
- Crowds of up to 400 white men attacked Caribbean homes with milk bottles, iron bars, knives and petrol bombs
- No fatal casualties
29
Describe some evidence of change to the role of women
- Increase in women entering middle-class occupations (nurses, teachers, secretaries)
- By 1964 the number of working women had risen slightly
- **1952 equal pay for teachers**
- **1954 equal pay for civil servants**
- Lives transformed by labour saving devices like washing machines and refrigerators
- **Second wave feminism spreading from America**
30
Describe some evidence of continuity in the role of women
- Remained extremely conservative
- 1950s average age of marriage = 21
- 1950’s = 70% of women married
- 1951 = 1/5th women worked
- Family allowance paid to women so they didn’t have to work
- Women financially dependant on husbands
- Very few married women or women with children worked (considered bad for the children)
31
Describe some evidence of change to youth culture
- Youth culture emerges in the 1950’s (labour saving devices free up time for girls and boys National Service ends in 1960)
- Post-war baby boom, 1959 = 10 million teenagers/10% of the population
- Subcultures (teddy boys, mods, rockers)
- Fighting between Mods & Rockers - May 1964, organised rioting at Clacton, Margate and Brighton
32
Describe some evidence of change to taboos and censorship
- Sapphire, 1959, crime thriller, TV/film - racial tensions, sex and violence
- Z-cars, TV - the reality of the police force
- A Clockwork Orange, 1962, book - gang violence
- **Cathy Come Home, 1962, TV - homelessness**
- **Taste of Honey , 1958, play - young unmarried white woman, pregnant with a black man’s child**
- **Victim, 1961 - first english language film to use the word ‘homosexual’**
33
Describe some evidence of continuity in taboos and censorship
- Backlash against ‘immorality & depravity’ - led by Mary Whitehouse and supported by parts of the National Press
- In general, society remained socially conservative
34
Summarise the relationship between Britain and the Empire
- Britain could no longer afford an empire
- There was a growing nationalist movement
- Nazi Germany demonstrated the ethics of imperialism
- The plan became to develop countries self-governing potential and guide them to independence. Former colonies should then join the Commonwealth and co-operate with Britain in Sterling area and in defence.
35
Describe the relationship between countries and their colonisers the 1950’s
- Loas, Cambodia and Vietnam are given independence from France
- Nationalists in North Africa lead to Algerian Crisis for France and encourages nationalists in Ghana
36
Summarise the Korean War
- **1950-1953**
- At the end of WW2, Korea was occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the US in the South
- In 1950, forces from North Korea (supported by the Soviet Union and China) invaded the South
- The UN condemned the action and sent UN forces to combat the invasion
- 20 countries supplied troops with Britain sending the **second largest amount, 90,000 soldiers**
- A ceasefire was agreed in 1953 - Korea would be split into communist North and non-communist South
- **Over 1,000 British troops died**
37
Describe the effects of the Korean War
- Showed Cold War being fought across the world
- Demonstrated Britain’s willingness to continue as a major world power despite economic constraints
- Made it clear the US was the greater power
38
List the causes of the Suez Crisis
- Britains imperialist attitude
- Actions of Nasser
- The Cold War
- Rise of Arab Nationalism
- Actions of Eden
39
Describe how Britains imperialist attitudes caused the Suez Crisis
- Britain was determined to remain a great power
- There was a growing rift between Britain and Egypt
- Battle of ideals
40
Describe how the actions of Nasser caused the Suez Crisis
- A strong believer of Egyptian nationalism
- US and Britain withdrew financial support from Nasser’s most important development project, the Aswan High Dam
- Nasser established closer links with USSR (especially Czechoslovakia who supplied him with military equipment)
- The Baghdad Pact of 1955 secured Britain’s friendship with the Middle East but Nasser was hostile towards it
41
Describe how the Cold War caused the Suez Crisis
- The Cold War meant Britain and the US were particularly wary of Egypt’s friendship with Russia
- US financed the Aswan High Damn in an attempt to deter Nasser from expanding relations with the Soviet states but he continued to play both until the US withdrew financial support
- Israel was an ally of the US and Egypt was an ally of the Soviet Union
- The reduction of British forces in Egypt shifted the balance for potential military action by the West against the USSR
42
Describe how the rise of Arab Nationalism caused the Suez Crisis
- British withdrew from Palestine in 1948, allowing the creation of Israel
- Defeat of Egypt in the Arab-Israeli War (1948-1949)
- 1952, nationalist forces in Egypt forced the abdication of King Farouk and declared themselves a republic
- Nassar’s aim to form a pan-Arab coalition of states under Egyptian leadership
43
Describe how the actions of Eden caused the Suez Crisis
- Eden had been involved with troop withdrawal in 1936 so had a personal interest (the agreement had been to remove all British troops by 1956 in tip return for Britain’s right of re-entry if the canal was threatened by war)
- Eden disliked Nasser and Egyptian nationalism
- Eden disliked Nasser’s hostility to the Baghdad Pact and was worried about his growing involvement with Russia
44
Describe the short-term damage to Britain as a result of the Suez Crisis
- Strained relationship with US and France
- Resignation of Eden
- Blockage of Suez Canal (until April 1957)
- Reductions in oil exports to Western Europe, petrol rationing
45
Describe the long-term damage to Britain as a result of the Suez Crisis
- Imperialism abandoned as a long-term policy
- Arab nations depend more on the USSR
- Globalisation of the Cold War
- Deflected attention from Soviet takeover of Hungary
46
Describe the changes to British foreign policy witnessed during the Suez Crisis
- US was ignored
- Lack of professionalism, very naive
- Took little care of international opinion
- Existing pacts with Arab States put at risk
47
Describe the evidence of continuity in British foreign policy after the Suez Crisis
- Britain continued with nuclear strategy
- 3 circles - Europe, US and Empire
- ‘Special relationship’ with US repaired
- Britain continued to lead Commonwealth
- Britain applied to EEC in 1961
48
Describe the failings of Labour economic policy
Promised no tax increases right before 1959 election, accused of trying to buy electorate
July to September 1951, gold and dollar reserve deficit = $638 million
49
Describe Labour leadership
Atlee dim and out of date
Gaitskill hard headed and 'lacked... flair'
50
Describe Conservative position on homosexuality
1957 Wolfenden Commission recommends the decriminalisation of homosexuality
Not acted on by government
51
Describe Conservative social expenditure
Social service expenditure (as a % of public expenditure) goes from 39 in 1951 to 43% in 1955
52
Describe how the Suez Crisis started
* British troops withdraw from Egypt as planned
* US and UK withdraw financial aid to Aswan High Dam project
* Suez Canal is nationalised by Egypt to fund the Aswan High Dam
* UK ask Nasser to withdraw in return for shares in the canal company but he rejects
53
Describe British involvement in Suez
* The Sevres Protocol - Israel will invade Egypt to allow Britain and France to take the canal as an act of intervention
* Eden lies to parliament and denies collusion with Israel
* UK invades 20 miles of the Canal zone, bombing Cairo suburbs with 1,000 casualties
54
Describe how the Suez Crisis came to an end
* Britain forced to withdraw following a run on the pound
* Replaced by a UN peacekeeping force
55
Describe the relationship between Britain and the Commonwealth
* 1940, Indian and Burmese independence
* 1949, Crown and republican dominions may now join the Commonwealth
* 1957, Ghana becomes first black republic in the commonwealth
* 1960, Macmillan delivers 'Winds of Change' speech in South Africa
56
Describe early British disinterest in Europe
* 1950, Britain does not join Schuman talks to set up ECSC
* 1951, ECSC set up and Britain does not join
* 1952, Britain does not join European Defence Community or contribute to Stratsbourg Plan
* 1953, Britain turns down oppurtunity to join ECSC
* 1955, Britain withdraws from Messina talks. ECSC becomes the EEC.
* 1958, EFTA is formed
57
Describe later British interest in Europe
* 1957, Macmillan appointed two pro-European Ministers to the Treasury and board of Trade
* 1960, Macmillan promotes a pro-European to cabinet and includes joining the EEC in his Grand Design memo
* 1961, Britain applies to join the EEC
* 1963, Britain's application is vetoed by French President DeGaulle
58
Describe how Britain's involvement in the Cold War increased tensions
* 1952, Britain tests its first atomic bomb
* 1953, Bermuda Talks. Eisenhower is impatient with Churchill.
* 1956, Khrushchev and Bulgarin's visit to Britain is overshadowed by the Crabb Incident
* 1960, Paris Summit finally happens but is overshadowed by the shooting down of a US spy plane in Soviet airspace
59
Describe how Britain's involvement in the Cold War decreased tensions up to 1957
* 1954, Geneva Summit has Anglo-soviet chairmen
* 1955, British and Soviet warships exchange visits. Eden helps to resolve issues of French colonial control is SE Asia and over the rearming of West Germany.
* 1957, Macmillan and Eisenhower build on their wartime friendship
60
Describe how Britain's involvement in the Cold War decreased tensions after 1957
* 1959, Macmillan visits Moscow
* 1963, Test Ban Treaty
* 1964, Douglas-Home refuses to send British troops to support the US in Vietnam
61
Describe how Conservative structural reorganisation helped the Tories win in 1951
* 1946, Lord Woolton appointed Chairman of the Conservative Party
* Membership increased by 1 mill + 1945 to 1948
* Raised over 1 million pounds
* Appointed more full time party agents
* Committee on Party Organisation suggest limiting personal contributions to party funds to make party more democratic and this is acted upon
* Young Conservative movement started 1946
62
Describe how policy development and propaganda helped the Tories win in 1951
* Young reformers such as Powell, Macleod and Maudling
* Industrial Charter 1947 indicated support for welfare state, full employment and mixed economy
* 1949, 'The Right Road for Britain' lays out more aims
63
Describe how the Cold War helped the Conservatives win in 1951
* Conservatives compared Labour's socialism to that of the USSR
* Capitalism became more popular internationally
64
Describe how Labour's handling of the economy helped the Tories win in 1951
* Suspended contributions to Marshall Aid
* Poorly handled 1947 economic crisis
* 1951, agreed to an additional £4,700 million for the armed services over the next 3 years
* July to Sept 1951, gold and dollar reserve deficit reaches $638 million
65
Describe how Labour's association with austerity helped the Tories win in 1951
* Clothes remained rationed until 1949
* Rationing of basic foodstuffs continued until 1950
* Government encouraged the eating of whale meat and snoek
66
Describe how Labour failures helped the Tories win in 1951
* Fighting between 'consolidationists' (more modern) and 'expansionists' (a continued commitment to socialism)
* Bevan called the Tories 'lower than vermin' in a speech that faced backlash
* 1950, 'Let Us Win Through Together' seemed backward looking
* 1951 manifesto failed to mention nationalisation or socialism
67
Describe how Conservative election pledges helped the Tories win in 1951
* Took on many of Labour's more popular policies
* 1950 and 1951 manifestos were cohesive
* Denationalisation of road haulage and iron and steel
* Pledged to build 300,000 new homes a year
68
Describe how divisions within the Labour party helped the Tories win in 1951
* 1951, Gaitskill proposed charges for dentures, spectacles and prescriptions to cover the cost of the Korean War
* This would only make up £13 million of the required £400 million
* Bevan, Wilson and Freeman resigned in protest
69
Describe how changes to constituencies boundaries helped the Tories win in 1951
* Accounted for about 30 seats lost by Labour
70
Describe how the middle class vote helped the Tories win in 1951
* Tired of austerity and high taxation
* Particularly clear in the Home Counties and suburban London
71
Describe how decline of the Liberal party helped the Tories win in 1951
* Few liberal candidates
* Constituencies with no liberal candidate, votes probably went to the conservatives
72
Describe Churchill's commitment to the post-war consensus
* 'What we need is a period of steady, stable administration'
* Moderate politics that largely continued previous policy
73
Describe the 1955 election campaign
* 'Conservative freedom works'
* Eden seemed youthful
* The first TV election
74
Describe the results of the 1955 election
* Easy win by the Conservatives
* Government majority of 58
* Only 76.7% turnout
75
Describe by-election problems 1957-58
* Suez Crisis
* By summer 1958, the Conservatives had lost 4 seats, 2 to Labour and 2 to the Liberals
76
Describe Macmillan's indifference to political crisis
* Jan 1958, Thorneycroft and whole Treasury team resign over public expenditure cuts
* 'a little local difficulty'
* Night of the Long Knives
77
Describe Macmillan's control of the commons
* Effective and confident debator
* Labour were much weaker and failed to exploit weaknesses
78
Describe opinion polls in the lead up to the 1959 election
* Conservatives had a small but steady lead
* Much closer than in 1955
79
Describe the Conservative 1959 election campaign
* 'Life is better under the Conservatives'
* Highlighted Macmillan as a strong leader
* Promised to double the standard of living within a generation
* Macmillan and President Eisenhower have a TV discussion
80
Describe Labour in the lead-up to the 1959 election
* Last minute pledge not to increase the basic rate of income tax led to accusation of trying to buy the electorate
* Professional TV broadcasts e.g those by Anthony Wedgwood Benn
81
Describe the results of the 1959 election
* Conservative majority of 100
82
Describe the Liberal revival
* 1961 and 62, the Liberals came 2nd in 8 by-elections
* Did well in local elections
* March 1962, won the Tory safe seat in Orpington, Kent
83
Describe Night of the Long Knives
* July 1962
* Macmillan fired 1/3rd of his cabinet
* Later admitted this he 'made a great error'
* Failed to improve the popularity of the party
84
Describe the Vassal Affair
* 1955, Macmillan had told the House of Commons there was no evidence Kim Philby was a spy
* March 1963, Philby fled to Moscow to join Burgess and Maclean
* Showed incompetence in high places
85
Describe the Profumo Affair
* Minister of War, Profumo, was involved with Keeler who was also sleeping with the Soviet Military Attache Ivanov
* This was considered a security risk
* Profumo denied this to the Conservative Chief Whip and the House of Commons in 1963
* Macmillan accepted this without any investigation
* Profumo eventually admitted he had lied and resigned
86
Describe the resignation of Macmillan
Facing increasing criticism he resigned in October 1963
87
Describe how the Tories became politically out of touch
* 1955, over half of Eden's cabinet and 20% of Tory backbenchers had been to Eton
* Macmillan's cabinet contained 9 Etonians
* Douglas-Home's cabinet contained 11 Etonians
* 1961 Who's Who, more than 1/3rd had been to independent schools
88
Describe the problems in housing in the 1950's
* The war had destroyed over half a million homes
* Construction of new homes had decreased to 70,000 a year
89
Describe positives in housing
* Reduced the building standards of council houses
* Gave more government funding
* 1945 to 1954, over 75% of all new dwellings were built by local authorities
* By 1964, the Conservatives had built 1.7 million new houses
90
Describe social services
* 1951 to 1955, rose from 39.2% of public expenditure to 43%
* From 1952, all primary school children were given a bottle of milk each day
91
Describe the NHS
* Introduced 20p prescription charge without public outcry
* 1956 Guillebaud Committee report showed the NHS was efficients and cost effective
92
Describe capital punishment
* July 1955, Ruth Ellis was hanged for murder
* Labour MP introduced a bill to end capital punishment in 1956
* Was rejected by the House of Lords
93
Describe positives in education
1947 to 1958, spending on education:
* Doubled in real terms
* Increased as a proportion of national income by 75%
94
Describe negatives in education
* **75-80% failed the 11+**
* **By 1960, 2 of every 3 state educated 12 year olds attended a secondary modern**
* Over half of grammar school pupils were still in school at 17
* **Less than 10% of kids in Gateshead and Sunderland attended Grammar school compared to 40% in Westmoreland**
* Only 1.5% of children from the St Ann's district (Nottingham) passed the 11+, compared to 60% in a nearby middle class district
95
Describe negatives in higher education
1963, Robins Committee Report:
* Many countries were ahead of Britain
* Britain should aim for 50% more students by 1967 and 250% more by 1980
96
Describe positives in higher education
* 11 new uni's created in the 60's
* By 1963, the University Grants Committee was paying out more than £30 million
* Polytechnics were introduced
97
Describe pre-election tax cuts
- April 1955, £134 million tax cuts
- 1959, income tax from 43% to 39%
