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Year 12 Biology > Topics to revise > Flashcards

Topics to revise Flashcards

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1
Q

Signal transduction definition

A

cascade of events in which a message from outside of the cell enters the cell. (Usually second messenger molecules amplify response)

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2
Q

Types of bonds for tertiary and quaternary structures

A

hydrogen, covalent (disulfide bridges), ionic interactions, hydrophobic interactions

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3
Q

What are first messengers molecules as opposed to second messenger molecules

A

like the actual message - e.g. hormone

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4
Q

Mitochondrial pathway (5 steps)

A
  • Damage
  • Activation of proteins on surface of mitochondrial membrane
  • Mitochondrial membrane ruptures
  • Caspases are activated and they enter the nuclear pores and destroy DNA
  • Dying cells display signals, destroyed by macrophages
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5
Q

Death receptor pathway (6 steps)

A
  • Caspases are activated
  • Cells shrink and develop blebs
  • Caspases enter nuclear pores and destroy DNA and proteins
  • Mitochondria break down
  • Fragments bind to receptors on phagocytes and are destroyed
  • Phagocytes release cytokines to prevent inflammation and neighbouring cell death
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6
Q

What happens to organelles in apoptosis

A

generally preserved

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7
Q

Important to remember about drawing a meiosis/mitosis diagram

A

Need to add like 2n = 4 e.t.c.

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8
Q

Steps of DNA replication

A
  1. DNA helicase separates the two strands, exposing the bases
  2. DNA is antiparallel and semi-conservative, so…
  3. On the leading strand, primer attaches, then complementary, free DNA nucleotides attach to form a continuous strand in 5’ to 3’ direction - catalysed by DNA polymerase
  4. On the lagging strand, the new DNA strand is made in pieces called Okazaki fragments, which are joined together by DNA ligase
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9
Q

Basic remember prompts for DNA replication (4 points)

A
  1. DNA helicase separates DNA,
  2. DNA is antiparallel and semi-conservative, so…
  3. On leading strand primer attaches, complementary free DNA nucleotides attach to form strand - catalysed by DNA polymerase
  4. On lagging strand, made in pieces 3’ to 5’ called Okazaki fragments that are joined by DNA ligase
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10
Q

Leading strand is what prime to what prime

A

3’ to 5’

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11
Q

Lagging strand is what prime

A

5’ to 3’

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12
Q

What enzymes are involved in DNA replication

A

DNA helicase, DNA polymerase, DNA ligase

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13
Q

Chiasma

A

Point of crossing over

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14
Q

Ratio of test cross with heterozygous

A

1:1:1:1

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15
Q

Offspring produced by linked genes that are different from parents name

A

Recombinant offspring

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16
Q

If you have to work out which letters go on top for linked genes,

A

do a cross

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17
Q

Steps for genetic engineering (5)

A
  1. Isolation of gene
  2. Insert gene into vector
  3. Transfer vector to organism
  4. Transformation of organism
  5. Selection of GMO
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18
Q

Southern blotting

A

separates DNA

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19
Q

Polymerase Chain Reaction Steps

A
  1. 94 degrees, to dentature
  2. 50 degrees and add primer, to hybridise two strands
  3. 72 degrees, DNA polymerase initiates DNA synthesis, free and complementary base nucleotides
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20
Q

Natural selection steps (5)

A
  1. Genetic variation exists in a population resulting in phenotypic variation within the population.
  2. In a changing environment, organisms with the favoured phenotype will have an improved chance of surviving and reproducing over those of less favourable phenotypes.
  3. Hence more offspring will posses the favoured characteristics
  4. And their frequency (and that of the alleles) within the population will increase across generations
  5. In time, evolution of a new species may occur.
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21
Q

Selective agents definition

A

Agents that ‘select’ for or against particular organisms surviving and producing offspring.

22
Q

Darwin’s beliefs

A

different genotypes hence phenotypes, struggle for survival due to selective pressures, best suited will produce more, new variations can result in evolution

23
Q

Adaptive radiation is what kind of evolution

A

divergent evolution

maybe read about it

24
Q

Molecular clock definition

A

Uses fossil evidence and rates of molecular change to deduce the time in geological history when two species diverged.

25
Q

DNA hybridisation steps

A
  1. DNA strands separated by heat
  2. Separated strands are mixed between species - more pairing = more similarity, less pairing = less similarity
  3. Molecule is reheated to separate strands
26
Q

What is it called when you do radioactive chemical dating thing

A

Radiometric dating

27
Q

What to know about electron spin resonance

A

older means more electrons spinning/energy rate

28
Q

Difference between Hominoids, hominids and hominins,

A 
Hominoids = all apes
Hominids = great apes
Hominins = bipedal
29
Q

What homo has largest brain

A

homo neanderthalensis

30
Q

Features to look for in skull

A

rounded jaw, more protruding jaw, larger brain, hip shape, arm length, brow bone prominence, vertical forehead, foramen magnum

31
Q

What species is homo egaster

A

homo erectus

32
Q

How long ago was homo erectus

A

1.8-500,000 yrs ago

33
Q

When did homo sapiens evolve

A

150,000 yrs ago

34
Q

Out of Africa theory

A

modern human evolved in Africa

35
Q

Out of Africa theory evidence

A

fossils, mtDNA

36
Q

Regional Continuity Hypothesis

A

evolved from homo erectus populations from around the world

37
Q

How technological evolution developed due to cultural evolution

A

communication

38
Q

Flanking regions

A

regions of DNA surrounding coding region. Two types are upstream and downstream.

39
Q

Upstream region

A

contains promotor sequence, TATA box

40
Q

Promotor sequence

A

tells where to start coding, TATA box

41
Q

Downstream region

A

end transcription signal

42
Q

Transcription steps (3)

A
  1. RNA polymerase attaches to promotor region, and unwinds DNA sequence (unpaired bases are exposed)
  2. RNA polymerase constructs mRNA by collecting free RNA nucleotides that are complementary to the DNA template strand to form pre-mRNA
  3. introns are spliced out, methyl cap is added to 5’ end and poly-A-tail to 3’ end
43
Q

Translation steps

A

Need to learn see VCAA

44
Q

Gene expression is

A

making polypeptide

45
Q

Operon definition

A

functioning unit of genomic DNA containing a cluster of genes under the control of a promotor

46
Q

In order to stop expression

A

repressor protein binds to operator sequence

47
Q

Lac operon gene

A

B-galactosidase

48
Q

Homeotic genes

A

regulator genes that play part in embryonic development

49
Q

Allergic response process

A
  1. Upon first exposure to allergen, B cells develop into plasma cells that secrete IgE antibodies specific for the allergen.
  2. Some of these antibodies bind by their tails to a mast cell.
  3. Upon the second exposure, the allergen binds to IgE already on the mast cell, trig erring “degranulation” of the cell. Cellular granules release histamine and other inflammatory agents leading to the symptoms of the allergy.
50
Q

Label for antibody

A

Antigen binding site
Light chains
Heavy chains

Year 12 Biology (9 decks)

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