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Year 12 Biology > Chapter 7 + 8 > Flashcards

Chapter 7 + 8 Flashcards

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1
Q

Disease can be caused by (4)

A

Genetics
Diet
Environment
Pathogen

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2
Q

Ways disease is spread (7)

A 
Direct contact
Indirect contact (e.g. Where they touched)
Water
Air
Food
Vectors
Travel
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3
Q

Features of a disease (Simpsimp)

A

Signs
Symptoms
Incubation period
Infective period

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4
Q

Non-infectious disease

A

Diseases that cannot be transmitted from one individual to another (includes genetic disease)

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5
Q

Infectious disease

A

Disease that can be transmitted from person to person e.g. Diphtheria

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6
Q

The host of a disease…

A

May not show signs of disease

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7
Q

Contagious disease

A

Spread through contact

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8
Q

Autoclaving experiment

A

Louis Pasteur

Autoclaved with upside down straw took most time

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9
Q

Pathogen

A

A biological agent (cellular or non cellular) that causes disease in a host/individual

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10
Q

Examples of pathogens (5)

A 
Prions
Viruses
Bacteria
Fungi
Worms
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11
Q

Cellular agents

A

Cellular organisms with a cellular structure

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12
Q

Non-cellular agents

A

Infective agents that lack a cellular structure

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13
Q

Cellular agent examples

A

Bacteria, fungi, protists, worms

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14
Q

Non-cellular examples

A

Virus, viroid, prion

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15
Q

Infection

A

Invasion and growth of a harmful pathogen within the body of a host

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16
Q

Antigenic virus

A

A new virus can arise when a host is infected with more than one viral strain at the same time, recombination of these parts may occur between the different strains, resulting I. A viral strain that has not been found before.

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17
Q

Disease

A

Any change from a state of health that impairs the function of an individual in some way, except that directly resulting from physical injury

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18
Q

Parasite

A

an organism that lives in or on another organism (host), and feeds and obtains shelter from it, causing harm to the host, usually without killing the host.

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19
Q

Endoparasite

A

lives inside of host

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20
Q

Ectoparasite

A

lives outside of host

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21
Q

Things that prevent disease

A

quarantine, vaccinations/immunisation,

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22
Q

Prions

A

abnormal and infectious agents, consisting of folded pieces of protein that are responsible for degenerative neurological diseases.

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23
Q

How prions work (3)

A

convert normal prion proteins into infectious proteins via simple contact (alpha helices-beta), cause cell to burst, released prions

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24
Q

Viruses

A

particles lacking cellular organisation and consisting of genetic material surrounded by a protein coat; reproduce only in a host cell.

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25
Q

Viruses can’t…

A

independently reproduce

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26
Q

Viruses don’t…

A

respire, or produce waste, need to reproduce

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27
Q

Viruses are…

A

obligate intracellular parasites

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28
Q

In plants viruses cause

A

stunting, and dwarfism

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29
Q

Viruses are made up of (2)

A

core of DNA/RNA and protein coat, they are spherical shaped

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30
Q

How viruses enter cell (4)

A

pierce surface, attach to a receptor site prior to injecting genetic components, or cell may take in virus via endocytosis (e.g. influenza)

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31
Q

How viruses reproduce (6)

A

attachment/enter, penetration, biosynthesis of viral components, viral parts are assembled together, lysis of host cell (use enzymes)

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32
Q

Obligate intracellular parasites meaning (7)

A

parasites that can survive only inside cells.

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33
Q

Viroids

A

small pieces of RNA that cause diseases that cause diseases. Smallest known infective agents, have naked RNA, highly complementary, circular, single stranded RNA, in plants only

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34
Q

Bacteriophages

A

virus that infects bacteria

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35
Q

Bacteria cell walls are made out of

A

peptidoglycan

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36
Q

Fungi cell walls are made of

A

chitin

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37
Q

How bacteria work (5)

A

attach to wall, DNA injected in, DNA takes over, uses energy in cell, makes new bacteriophages

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38
Q

Host

A

organism or cell that a specific parasite lives in or on.

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39
Q

Epidemic

A

large region, short period; spread by travelling

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40
Q

Pandemic

A

world wide, longer time

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41
Q

Protozoa is…

A

protist

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42
Q

Three shapes of bacteria

A

coccus (round), bacillus (rod), spirochaete (spiral),

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43
Q

Capsule

A

gelatinous layer surrounding the cell wall of some bacteria.

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44
Q

Bacteria can produce toxins

A

exotoxins which are secreted by bacteria whilst they are alive, and endotoxins are released upon destruction of the bacterium

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45
Q

Virulence

A

degree to which an organism can cause disease. Capsule increases virulence.

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46
Q

Spore

A

reproductive structure that is resistant to heat and desiccation in bacteria, fungi and plants

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47
Q

Gram strain

A

differential stain by which bacteria are classified as Gram positive or Gram negative depending on chemical differences in their cell walls.

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48
Q

Gram positive

A

violet, penicillin (antibiotic, inhibits cell wall)

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49
Q

Gram negative

A

pink, drugs

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50
Q

Facultative anaerobe

A

can live if there is O2 or not

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51
Q

Obligate

A

can’t live in O2 conditions

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52
Q

Bacteria can cause disease if

A

there is a host, bacteria can reproduce, can act on tissue,

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53
Q

Vector

A

in disease, an insect or other animal that carries a pathogenic organism from one host to another.

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54
Q

Gangrene

A

lack of blood supply, dead tissue

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55
Q

Toxins

A

substances poisonous to an organism.

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56
Q

Endotoxins

A

toxins produced by an organism and released only when the organism disintegrates.

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57
Q

Exotoxin

A

toxin secreted into the surrounding medium by a micro-organism as it grows.

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58
Q

Chemotherapy

A

use of chemicals in the treatment of disease.

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59
Q

Classifying viruses (3)

A

kind of host cell, type nucleic acid (RNA or DNA), different structures that make up the protein coat (shape, symmetry, number of coats.)

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60
Q

Bacteria

A

essential for life, can tolerate extreme conditions

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61
Q

In order to reproduce bacteria needs

A

adequate nutrients and water, and an appropriate temperature and pH.

62
Q

Bacterial infections more in animals that in plants due to…

A

alkalinity

63
Q

Carrier

A

a person who shows no sign of an infectious disease but is host to the causative agent and can transmit it to other people.

64
Q

2 main types of immune responses

A

specific and non-specific

65
Q

Other names for specific and non-specific respectively

A

innate, adaptive

66
Q

First line of defence (10)

A

intact skin, fatty acids on skin (acidic), sebum, mucus in respiratory tract, cilia, acid in stomach, natural flora, lysozome in tears and saliva, lactoperoxidase, spermine

67
Q

Sebum

A

oily fluid secreted by sebaceous glands in the skin and hair

68
Q

Lysozome

A

enzyme that catalyses the lysis of bacteria

69
Q

Lactoperoxidase and spermine are…

A

toxic

70
Q

Intact skin

A

acts as a barrier to microbe entry, secretes fatty acids and sweat to inhibit microbial growth, low pH

71
Q

Natural secretions

A

contain bactericidal agents, e.g. tears and saliva

72
Q

Mucous membranes

A

located in respiratory tract/nasal passage/digestive tract, cells secrete mucous which traps microbes

73
Q

Natural flora

A

inhibits growth of pathogens, when altered leads to opportunity infection, e.g. bacteria in gut

74
Q

First line plants

A

galls, waxy cuticle and epidermis, chemicals

75
Q

Galls

A

little cavities that form around invading pathogens (walls off the infections through thickened cell layer)

76
Q

Chemicals example

A

(pathogenic organisms) e.g. phenolic compounds

77
Q

What is in the second line (PENCCII)

A

phagocytes, enzymes, natural killer cells, complement proteins, inflammation, interferon, cytokines,

78
Q

Phagocytes

A

white bloods cells that engulf and destroy microbes and foreign matter. Made in bone marrow.

79
Q

Types of phagocytes

A

neutrophil, monocyte (most common),

80
Q

Neutrophils

A

white blood cell that phagocytoses pathogenic organisms

81
Q

Macrophages

A

white blood cell that phacgocytoses pathogenic organisms,

82
Q

Monocyte

A

immature (undifferentiated) form of macrophage

83
Q

Dendritic cell

A

leukocyte that phagocytoses organisms

84
Q

Eosinophils

A

white blood cell that kills eukaryotic pathogens by secreting destructive enzymes

85
Q

Basophils

A

white blood cell that is involved with the allergic response

86
Q

Lymphocytes

A

cells that are associated with the lymphatic system

87
Q

Two types of lymphocytes

A

B cells, T cells?

88
Q

B cells

A

lymphocytes that are produced in the bone marrow

89
Q

T cell

A

produced in the bone marrow except they migrate to the thymus to mature

90
Q

Lymphatic system

A

fluid from tissues drays into lymph vessels, lymph in lymph vessels pass through masses of tissue called lymph nodes, lymph in lymph nodes contain lymphocytes which are involved in the immune response

91
Q

Antigens

A

proteins that identify cells and that can potentially be recognised by an immune system leading to an immune response

92
Q

First and second line are

A

non-specific

93
Q

First line of defence is

A

physical and chemical barriers to entry

94
Q

Second line is

A

non-specific immune response when pathogens enter the body

95
Q

When a monocyte leaves the blood stream….

A

becomes macrophage

96
Q

Natural killer cells

A

kill virus infected body cells. Other white blood cells can attach to and destroy parasites. Cytotoxins or endotoxins.

97
Q

How NK cells destroy kill virus infected cells/parasites

A

contain receptors to self antigens, any cell missing self receptor is killed through perforation of the cell membrane

98
Q

What is pus

A

dead white blood cells

99
Q

Complement proteins

A

assist the phagocytes to engulf foreign matter by attaching to it. Made in liver.

100
Q

Functions of complement proteins

A

make pathogens easier to phagocytose, perforate cell wall and membrane of bacteria

101
Q

How many complement proteins in body

A

20?

102
Q

When body is infected… what happens (antibody)

A

antibody-antigen complex occurs, which activates complement protein

103
Q

Role of complement protein

A

stick to invading microbes to make them more readily identified by phagocyte, stimulate phagocytes to become more active, attract phagocytes to site of infection, destroy membranes of microbes

104
Q

Interferon

A

acts on uninfected cells to make them resistant to viral infection, cause production of antiviral proteins, useful if virus doesn’t have to travel far

105
Q

Cytokines

A

protein molecules that act as messengers between cells, produced by all cells in immune response, particularly T cells

106
Q

Inflammation

A

occurs when arterioles in the area around a cut dilate to increase permeability, resulting in an increased blood supply to the area, blood carries phagocytes to area, phagocytes move to surrounding tissue, release histamine to attract more phagocytes, creates clots, and pus

107
Q

How inflammation occurs

A

macrophages and dendritic cells have receptors on their cells that can bind to molecules found only in damaged cells or pathogens and when these receptors bind, the macrophages and dendritic cells secrete cytokines which causes the nearby blood vessels to dilate and become ‘sticky’ and permeable, hence more blood passes through this area and fluid leaks into this area leading to redness and swelling. Neutrophils and monocytes adhere to blood vessels and migrate to the extracellular space, they use their receptors to detect the pathogenic agents, they phagocytose these agents and destroy them by fusing vesicles with lysosomes

108
Q

Inflammation controlled by

A

plasma enzyme systems and serotonin

109
Q

Basophils used in

A

inflammation, allergic response

110
Q

Third line of defence includes

A

lymphocytes - T cells, B cells, plasma cells, clonal selection, ….. response, cellular response
?????

111
Q

Where B cells are made

A

bone marrow

112
Q

T cells made

A

created in bone marrow, mature in thymus

113
Q

Difference between specific and not

A

specific remembers specific type of antigen

114
Q

MHC stands for

A

Major Histocompatibility Complex

115
Q

Class 1 markers

A

all body cells except red blood cells

116
Q

Class 2 markers

A

only on T and B cells as well as some macrophages

117
Q

Antigen

A

a material that triggers an immune response.

118
Q

Types of B cells

A

memory B cells

119
Q

Types of T cells

A

T helper cells, Cytotoxic T cells, suppressor T cells, memory T cells,

120
Q

‘Self antigens’

A

the antigens of B and T cells that identify non self and trigger T/B to act

121
Q

Plasma cells

A

help us reproduce a large number of antibodies quickly, but often overproduces so we have spare which undergo apoptosis

122
Q

Clonal selection

A

antigen selects what B cell will lead to death, selected B cells reproduce (clone), and this continues, most of these will differentiate into plasma cells (creates delay)

123
Q

T cells do not

A

make antibodies, they have a specific shape to match antigen

124
Q

Helper T cell

A

(flag) displays parts of dead foreign material on self

125
Q

Cytotoxic T cells

A

(identify and kill) kills viral infected cells, identify its antigen and class marker, punch holes in infected cell (contents ooze out),

126
Q

Antibiotics

A

naturally occurring substances that inhibit the growth of, or destroy, bacteria and other micro-organisms

127
Q

Narrow-spectrum

A

characterises an antibiotic that is effective against a few pathogens only

128
Q

Broad-spectrum

A

characterises an antibiotic that is effective against many different pathogens

129
Q

Sensitivity test

A

find out drug to use for bacterial infections

130
Q

2 types of vectors

A

injecting, carrying

131
Q

Suppressor T cells work by

A

directly killing immune cells, inhibiting secretions, secreting proteins that alter immune cell functions - stop when it is “defeated” to not waste resources

132
Q

Mast cells

A

nflammatory response - a cell filled with basophil granules, found in numbers in connective tissue and releasing histamine and other substances during inflammatory and allergic reactions.

133
Q

Five types of antibodies (immunoglobulin)

A

IgM, IgG, IgD, IgA, IgE

134
Q

IgM

A

antibody that is secreted first by plasma cells in an immune response. It is composed of five antibody molecules joined together.

135
Q

IgG

A

antibody that is secreted some time after IgM in the initial immune response, and is the only antibody secreted in a secondary immune response (second or subsequent infection by the same antigen). This is composed of single antibody molecules

136
Q

IgD

A

this is the antibody receptor found on B cells

137
Q

IgA

A

this is found in the respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract, and neutralise infectious agents that commonly attempt to invade through these mechanisms. This is composed of two antibody molecules joined together end on end.

138
Q

IgE

A

this is involved in the allergic response.

139
Q

On antibody, there is a … portion

A

Fc portion that can bind to neutrophils and macrophages

140
Q

Fc portion

A

antibody can neutralise toxin, antigen-antibody complexes can be formed (agglutination), phagocytes attached to antibody can engulf an antibody-antigen complex making it better to engulf for phagocytes (jam on toast), activate complement proteins which perforate pathogenic agents,

141
Q

Specific immune response has memory which is…

A

the capacity to recognise antigens that have previously entered the body

142
Q

Hypersensitivity

A

allergic response and autoimmune disease

143
Q

Allergic response

A

IgE antibody, bind via Fc of mast cell, histamine

144
Q

Histamine causes

A

pain, itchiness, swelling, can be anaphylactic shock

145
Q

Autoimmune diseases examples

A

e.g. type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis

146
Q

Induced immunity

A

artificial

147
Q

Natural immunity

A

natural

148
Q

Passive immunity

A

given antibodies

149
Q

Active

A

produce on own

150
Q

B cells

A

(have antibodies, identifies, produce, secrete) have immunoglobulin (antibodies) on surface, identify antigens, recognise only one type of antigen, identifies antigen, produces antibody and secretes it

151
Q

An antibody is what kind of macromolecule

A

Protein

152
Q

How do fibrons work in clotting

A

They act as nets that trap platelets (and also red blood cells)

Year 12 Biology (9 decks)

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