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cp3078 > Topic D - endocrine system, endocrine diseases and the eye > Flashcards

Topic D - endocrine system, endocrine diseases and the eye Flashcards

1
Q

what does the nervous system consist of and what are its functions?

A

consist of :

  • brain
  • spinal cord
  • nerves
functions : 
- sensation 
- integration 
- response 
etc
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2
Q

what does the endocrine system consist of and what are its functions?

A

2nd controlling system in the body ( first is CNS )

consists of :

  • pituitary gland
  • thyroid gland
  • adrenal glands
  • ovaries ( in females )
  • testicles ( in males )
functions : 
- metabolism 
- heart rate 
- blood pressure 
- body temperature 
etc
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3
Q

what is the endocrine system?

A

endocrine: hormones that travel through the blood or lymph nodes to get their target tissue
- second controlling system of the body
- more slow acting compared to the CNS
- uses chemical messenger, hormones, to exert the effects

  • hormones are secreted by endocrine glands that are scattered over different parts of the body
  • > endocrine glands are ductless gland, therefore hormones produced are directly released into the blood or lymph nodes
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4
Q

what is a hormone?

A
  • they are signalling molecules, produced by glands in the multicellular organisms, that are transported by the circulatory system ( blood vessels, lymph nodes ) to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behavior

egs:

  1. oestrogen ( female hormone )
    - produced by pituitary glands/ovaries - to stimulate female sex characteristics ( eg menstruation etc )
  2. insulin
    - produced by pancreas to lower - blood sugar level
  3. thyroid hormone
    - produced by anterior pituitary - to increase metabolism - produce heat
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5
Q

what are the locations of major endorcrine organs

A
  • pineal gland
  • hypothalamus
    regulates the release of hormones by pituitary gland ( main endocrine gland )
  • **pituitary gland
  • **thyroid gland
  • parathyroid glands
    on dorsal aspect of thyroid gland
  • thymus gland
  • adrenal glands
    adrenal cortex = outer layer
    adrenal medulla = inner layer
    -**pancreas
  • ovary ( female )
  • testis ( male )
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6
Q

what are the mechanisms of hormone action?

A
  • hormones affect only thier target cells or organs
    eg insulin -> target organ = liver
  • target cells must have specific protein receptors for the hormone
  • hormone binding influences the working of the cells

glands -> hormone -> target cells ( mostly specific )

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7
Q

what is the control of hormone secretion ?

HHN

A
  • *hormone secretion by endocrine glands can be stimulated by 3 different mechanism
    1. hormonal stimuli
    2. humoral stimuli
    3. neural stimuli
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8
Q

what is the hormonal stimuli of the endocrine glands?

A
  • stimulated by other hormones
  • controlled by negative feedback system
  1. the hypothalamus secretes hormones that stimulates the anterior pituitary gland
  2. the anterior pituitary gland secretes hormones to stimulate:
    A. thyroid gland
    B. adrenal cortex gland
    C. gonad ( testis ) gland
  3. A,B,C will stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete hormones
    eg FSH, LH - ovaries/testes
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9
Q

what is the humoral stimuli of endocrine glands?

A
  • stimulated by low blood levels of certain ions ( eg calcium ) and nutrients ( eg glucose )
    eg
    parathyroid glands - secrete PTH
    high glucose level - pancreas - secrete insulin
  1. capillary blood contains low concentration of ca^2+, which stimulates secretion of parathyroid hormone
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10
Q

what is the neural stimuli of endocrine glands?

A
  • stimulated by nerve impulses
  • most are under control of the sympathetic nervous system

eg adrenal medulla gland :
secrete epinephrine in times of pain, fear and/or stress

  1. pregangolionic SNS fiber stimulates adrenal medulla cells to secrete catecholamines
    [ epinephrine (adrenalin ) & norepinephrine ( noradrenalin ) are also known as catecholomines )
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11
Q

summary of what hormone secretion can be stimulated by

A
  1. hormonal stimuli
    - by other hormones
  2. humoral stimuli
    - by low ions/ nutrients in blood
  3. neural stimuli
    - nerve impulses
  4. and 2. are controlled by negative feedback
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12
Q

what is the hormone secretion and distribution

A

eg thyroid hormone and regulated by negative feedback mechanism
-when someone go outside when it is cold and is underdressed, the hypothalamus will try to speed up his/her metabolism to generate more heat

  1. hypothalamus release thyrotropin-releasing hormone ( TRH ) , which goes to its target tissue, anterior pituitary, and fits into receptors
  2. anterior pituitary - release TSH - goes to its target tissue - thyroid gland, and fits into receptors
  3. thyroid release thyroid hormone - stimulating most cells to increase metabolism ( heat is produced )
  4. when there is too much thyroid hormone - inhibits release of TSH from anterior pituitary & TRH from hypothalamus
  5. this negative-feedback mechanism regulates the level of thyroid hormone hence thyroid hormone is back to normal.

1,2,3 are stimulatory
4, 5 are inhibitory

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13
Q

what are the physiological effects of the hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland?
TAFLG

A
  • TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)
    target tissue = thyroid
    functions = stimulate thyroid hormone and growth of thyroid
  • ACTH (adrenocorticotropic)
    target tissue = adrenal cortex
    functions = stimulate glucocorticoids and growth of adrenal cortex
  • FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
    target tissue = ovaries/testes
    functions = stimulate oestrogen/ sperm production

-LH (luteinizing hormone)
target tissue = ovaries/ testes
functions = ovulation/ testosterone

- GH (growth hormone)
target tissue = liver, bone, cartilage, muscle, adipose tissue 
function = stimulate widespread tissue growth
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14
Q

what are the physiological effects of the hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary gland?
AO

A 
-ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
target tissue = kidneys 
function = increase water retention 
- Oxytocin 
target tissue 1) uterus 
function : stimulate uterus contractions 
target tissue 2) lactating breast 
function : stimulate release of milk
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15
Q

what are the physiological effects of the hormones secreted by the thyroid gland?
T3T4C

A 
- T3 and T4 ( thyroid hormone ) 
target tissue = most tissues
functions = 
1. elevates metabolic rate 
2. increase heart & respiration rate 
3. stimulate appetite
- calcitonin 
target tissue = osteoblasts 
function = stimulate bone deposition
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16
Q

what are the physiological effects of the hormones secreted by the parathyroids glands?
OKS

A 
- PTH (parathyroid gland)
target tissue 1 = osteoclasts 
function = stimulate bone reabsorption to increase calcium level 
target tissue 2 = kidneys 
function = stimulate calcium reabsorption by kidney
target tissue 3 = small intestine 
function = stimulate calcium absorption
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17
Q

**what are the physiological effects of the hormones secreted by the pancreas glands?
IG

A
  • insulin
    target tissue = most tissues, livers
    functions =
    1. stimulate glucose intake in cells to lower blood glucose level
    2. tells liver to store glucose as glycogen
  • glucagon
    target tissue = liver
    functions = stimulate glycogen conversion to glucose to raise blood glucose level
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18
Q

what are the physiological effects of the hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex?
MGA

A 
- mineralocorticoids ( aldosterone ) 
target tissue = kidneys 
functions = 
1. promote sodium and water reabsorption 
2. promote potassium excretion
3. maintain blood volume and pressure 
- glucocorticoids ( cortisol ) 
target tissue = most tissues 
functions = 
1. stimulate break down of protein and fat to make glucose 
2. suppress immune system
3. reduce inflammation
  • androgens ( DHEA )
    target tissue = most tissues
    functions = important to testosterone
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19
Q

what are the physiological effects of the hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla?

A
  • epinephrine

target tissues = most tissues

functions =

  1. increase metabolic rates, heart and respiration rate
  2. increase blood glucose level ( complements sympathetic nervous system )
20
Q

what are the physiological effects of the hormones secreted by ovaries?

A
  • oestrogen

target tissues = most tissues

functions =

  1. stimulates female secondary sex characteristics
  2. regulates menstrual cycle and pregnancy
21
Q

what are the physiological effects of the hormones secreted by testes?

A
  • testosterone

target tissues = most tissues

functions =

  1. stimulate male secondary sex characteristics
  2. sperm production
22
Q

what are the physiological effects of the hormones secreted by other tissues

A
  • prostaglandin

target tissues = most tissues

functions =
( a variety )
1. relaxing smooth muscle in respiratory airways
2. contraction of smooth muscles in uterus
etc

23
Q

what is the pituitary gland?

A
  • size of a pea
  • hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus

-*known as the master of endocrine gland

    • has two functional lobes
      1. anterior pituitary
      2. posterior pituitary
24
Q

what are the hormones of the anterior pituitary?

A
  1. adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
  2. thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)*
  3. follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)*
  4. Luteinizing hormone (LH)*
  5. Growth hormone (GH)*
  • ACTH,TSH
25
Q

what is the relationship of the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary?

A

(in the capillary, hormones from hypothalamus -> in the capillary, hormones from anterior pituitary) -> targets tissue

GHRH (growth-hormone-releasing hormone ) -> GH (growth hormone) -> bone, muscle, adipose tissue

TRH (thyrotropin-releasing hormone) -> TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) -> thyroid

CRH (croticotropin-releasing hormone) -> ACTH (adrenocortiotropic hormone) -> adrenal cortex

GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone)

  1. -> LH (luteinizing hormone) -> ovary
  2. -> FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) -> testis
26
Q

what are the hormones of the posterior pituitary

A

Antidiureic hormone (ADH)

  • can inhibit urine production (anti-diuresis)
  • ADH causes kidneys to reabsorb more water, thus urine volume and blood volume
  • in large amounts, causes vasconstriction which leads to increased blood pressure (vasopressin)

oxytocin

  • stimulates contractions of the uterus during labor
  • causes milk ejection (lactation)
27
Q

what is the relationship of the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary ?

A
  • hypothalamus produces 2 hormones :
    ADH & oxytocin that are transported to the posterior pituitary
  • ADH and oxytocin are released from the posterior pituitary in response to nerve impulses from the hypothalamus
  • the hypothalamus produces releasing and inhibiting hormones which regulate the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary
28
Q

what is the thyroid gland?

A
  • found at the base of the throat
  • consists of two lobes and a connecting isthmus
  • produces thyroid hormones (T4,T3) and calcitonin
    • major metabolic hormone ( when temp decrease, thyroid hormone increase )

-composed of two iodine-containing hormones
both elevates metabolic rate, increase heart and respirtaion rate, stimulate appetite
~ thyroxine (T4)
~ triiodothyronine (T3)

  • controls the rate at which glucose is oxidized and converted to chemical energy to be used by all body cells

( hyperthyroidism : when there is too much thyroid hormone which leads to hyperactivity)

29
Q

what is calcitonin ?

A
  • secreted by parafollicular cells ( also called C cells )
  • *function : decreases blood calcium levels by causing its deposition in bone
  • secreted in response to high blood calcium level (humoral stimuli)
  • antagonistic (opposing effect) to parathyroid hormone
30
Q

what are parathyroid glands?

A
  • tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid
  • secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) in response to low blood calcium level (humoral stimuli)
  • function = raise calcium levels in the blood by :
    1. stimulate osteoclasts to remove calcium from bone
    2. stimulate the kidneys and intestine to absorb more calcium
  • antagonistic (opposing effect) to calcitonin hormone
31
Q

what happens when the blood calcium level is low/decreases?

A
  1. when the blood calcium level decreases
  2. parathyroid glands release parathyroid hormone (PTH)
  3. osteoclasts degrade bone matrix and releases calcium into the blood
  4. blood calcium level will now increase back to normal
32
Q

what happens when the blood calcium level is high/ increases?

A
  1. when the blood calcium levels increases
  2. thyroid gland releases calcitonin
  3. calcitonin stimulates calcium salt deposits in bone ( to absorb calcium )
  4. now, the blood calcium level will decrease back to normal
33
Q

what is the pancreas and what does it contain?

A

contains more exocrine and endocrine glands

exocrine glands
- secrete digestive enzymes into the duodenum for digestion of food

endocrine glands

  • scattered within exocrine glands called islets of Langerhans
  • over 1 million islets in human pancreas
34
Q

what is the islets of Langerhans?

A

produce two important hormones in glucose metabolism , insulin and glucagon

  1. insulin
    - secreted by beta cells
    function* : decrease blood glucose level ( hypoglycemic effect )
  2. glucagon
    - secreted by alpha cells
    function* : increase blood glucose level (hyperglycemic effect )
  • these two hormones are antagonists that maintain blood sugar homeostasis
35
Q

what is the metabolic pathway for blood sugar when the blood glucose level increases/is high?
(humoral stimuli )

A
  1. blood glucose level increase/ is high
  2. more insulin is secreted by beta cells in the pancreas
    • insulin mediates the uptake of glucose into the cell.
    • glucose is then converted in glycogen for storage in the liver
  4. blood glucose level then decreases
36
Q

what is the metabolic pathway for blood sugar when the blood glucose level decreases/is low?
(humoral stimuli )

A
  1. when the blood glucose level decreases/is low
  2. more glucagon is screted by alpha cells in the pnacreas
  3. this mediates the breakdown of glycogen into glucose in the liver and the release into the blood stream
  4. blood glucose level then increases
37
Q

what is glucocorticoids and what are its functions?

A
  • secreted by the middle layer of the adrenal cortex
  • mainly cortisone and cortisol

functions (2)

  1. hyperglycemic effect ( increase blood sugar level )
    - promote normal cell metabolism
  2. helps the body to resist long-term stressors, primarily by increasing blood glucose levels
  3. anti-inflammatory effect (increase anti-inflammatory effect )
    - reduce the unpleasant effect of oedema during inflammation
    - reduce pain by inhibiting the effect of pain-causing molecule prostaglandin
38
Q

what are epinephrine and norepinephrine and their effects?

A
  • secreted by the adrenal medulla upon stimulation by the sympathetic nervous system ( neural stimuli )
  • epinephrine ( adrenalin ) & norepinephrine (noradrenalin ) are collectively known as catecholamines
  • function : fight or flight response, to cope with stressful situations

effects on the body
1. pupils dilate, lens shape change for far vision
2. increased heart rate
3. increased blood pressure
4. increase blood glucose level
5. dilate small passageways of the lungs
this allows more oxygen and glucose in the blood, faster circulation of blood to body organs esp brain,muscle, heart.

39
Q

what are the ovary hormones and thier functions?

A

progesterone
- produced by the corpus luteum (in ovaries)

functions : (2)

  • acts with estrogen to bring about menstrual cycle
  • helps in the implantation of an embryo in the uterus

estrogen
- produced by Graafian follicles (in ovaries) or the placenta

functions : (5)

  • stimulates the development of secondary female characteristics
  • matures female reproductive organs
  • helps prepare the uterus to receive a fertilised egg
  • helps maintain pregnancy
  • prepares the breasts to produce milk
40
Q

what are the hormones of the testes and what are their functions?

A
  • the testes produce several androgens (male sex hormones)

testosterone (the more important androgen )

  • it is secreted by interstitial cells of the testes
  • secretion is stimulated by luteinizing hormone (hormonal stimuli )

functions (3)

  • responsible for adult male secondary sex characteristics
  • promotes growth and maturation of male reproductive system
  • required for sperm cell production
41
Q

what is diabetes melltius and what are the 2 types?

A
  • is a disorder in which the body does not produce enough or respond to insulin, causing blood glucose levels to be abnormally high

insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM)

  • type l
  • young at onset
  • need insulin

non-inuslin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIIDM)

  • type ll
  • adult onset
  • need diet control, physical exercise and oral therapy
42
Q

what are the tests for diabetes mellitus and what are the complications
(2tests, 6complications)

A 
diagnostic tests 
1. Blood Glucose Level (BGL) 
2. Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) 
- (impt) 6 : normal , >6 : not normal 
6% = non-diabetic 
6-6.4 % = prediabetes 
6.5% or more = type 2 diabetes

complications :

  1. kidney failure
  2. adult blindness
  3. cardiovascular diseases
  4. delayed wound healing
  5. amputations
  6. diabetic retinopathy
43
Q

what are the signs of diabetic retinopathy?

A
  1. hemorrhages (bleeding in the eye)
  2. abnormal growth of blood vessels
  3. aneurysm
  4. ‘cotton wool’ spots
  5. hard exudates
    both 4 and 5 are pus ( yellow spots )
44
Q

what are the complications of diabetic retinopathy ?

know at least 3, but gd to know 4

A
  1. *diabetic retinopathy
  2. *cataract
    - diabetics are more susceptible to the earlier formation of cataracts than the general population
  3. *glaucoma
    - due to rubeosis iridis ( due to eye pressure )
  4. *blurred vision
    - osmotic changes in the lens due to fluctuations in blood sugar result in transient refractive errors
45
Q

what is hyperthyroidism (graves diseases) ?

A

occurs due to excessive production of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland

  • may lead to diffuse goitre ( swollen thyroid gland)
  • common in middle-aged females (30-40 yr old)
46
Q

what are the signs of hyperthyroidism ?

PIL2CPTF

A
  1. proptosis
    - forward intrusion of the eye
  2. increased IOP (intra ocular pressure)
  3. Lid retraction & stare
  4. Lid lag
    - eyelid is slower than eyeball
  5. Corneal explosure
    - leads to dry eyes
  6. Photophobia
    - glare effect
  7. Tearing
    * . Fb sensation
    - foreign burning

5-7 is due to proptosis

47
Q

what are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism and what are its treatment?
symptoms : WSHFTITPS
treatment: O2

A

symptoms :

  1. weight loss
  2. sweating
  3. heat intolerance
  4. fatigue
  5. tachycardia
    - increase in heart beat ( over 100 beats per minute )
  6. irritability
  7. tremors
  8. palpitation arrhythmias
    - a type of abnormal heart rhythm
  9. shortness of breath

treatment :

  1. ocular lubricants (eyedrops)
  2. oral steroids

cp3078 (6 decks)

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