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cp3078 > Topic C - nervous system, neurological diseases and the eye > Flashcards

Topic C - nervous system, neurological diseases and the eye Flashcards

1
Q

what are the major organs and structures in nervous system?

A
  1. brain
  2. spinal cord
  3. nerves
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2
Q

what are the accessory structure in nervous system?

A
  1. meninges

2. sympathetic chain of ganglia

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3
Q

what are the 2 main function of the nervous system

A
  1. transmit electrical signals

2. allows brain to communicate with the body

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4
Q

which 2 organs make up the central nervous system ( CNS )

A
  1. brain

2. spinal cord

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5
Q

what makes up the peripheral nervous system ( PNS )

A

consists mainly of the nerves that extends from the brain and spinal cord

  • cranial nerves ( from the brain )
  • spinal nerves ( from the spinal cord )
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6
Q

name the 12 pairs of cranial nerves and their functions

O3T2A2V2GFH

A
  1. olfactory nerve = for smell (s)
  2. optic nerve = for vision (s)
  3. oculomotor nerve = for eye movement (m)
  4. trochlear nerve = for eye movement (m)
  5. trigeminal nerve = motor for chewing, sensation of facial skin and mucosa of nose and mouth (s/m)
  6. abducens nerve = for eye movement
  7. accessory nerve = for eye movement
  8. vestibulocochlear nerve = for balance and hearing (s)
  9. vagus nerve = sympathetic and parasympathetic functions (s/m)
  10. glossopharyngeal nerve = for swallowing and saliva production (s/m)
  11. facial nerve = motor for facial expression, sensory for taste (s/m)
  12. hypoglossal nerve = for tongue movement (m)
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7
Q

describe spinal nerves

A
  1. stem out from the spinal cord

2. include nerve fibres of the sensory ( going into cns ) and motor neurons ( gg out of cns )

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8
Q

what are the 3 types of neurons?

A
  1. sensory (afferent) neurons - carry signals from the outer parts of your body (periphery) into the CNS. can be bipolar neurons - one dendrite and one axon ( found in the eye ) OR unipolar neurons( most common in the body ) - one dendrite, one axon with cell body push off to the side. Many cell body will group to form ganglia
  2. motor ( efferent ) neurons - carry signals from the CNS to the outer parts ( muscles,skin, glands) of your body. multipolar neurons - multiple endrites and an axon
  3. interneurons - connect various neurons within the brian and spinal cord
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9
Q

what are the 4 main areas of the brain?

A
  1. cerebral hemispheres ( cerebrum )
  2. diencephalon
  3. brain stem
  4. cerebellum
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10
Q

what is the cerebrum, what is its function and what are the 4 lobes within it?

A

it is the largest part of the brain and is composed of right and left hemispheres.

function: it performs higher functions like interpreting touch,vision and hearing, as well as speech, reasoning, emotions, learning, and fine control of movement.

four lobes:

  1. frontal lobe
  2. temporal lobe
  3. pariental lobe
  4. occipital lobe
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11
Q

what are the functions of the frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parental lobe and occipital lobe

A

frontal lobe (motor)

  • sends impulses to skeletal muscles
    important: in movement , etc
parietal lobe (sensory) 
- receives impulses from the body's sensory receptors 
important : in calculation, reading/writing, etc
temporal lobe (hearing) 
- for hearing 
occipital lobe (visual)
the visual processing center of mammalian brain containing most of the anatomical region of the visual cortex
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12
Q

describe the grey and white matter of the cerebrum

A 
cerebral cortex (gray matter) - superficial layer 
contain cell body and dendrites of neurons and unmyelinated axons (caused grey colour)

white matter- deeper layer
composed of myelinated axons carrying impulses to,from, or within the cortex

contains islands of gray matter known as basal nuclei eg caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus

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13
Q

what is the diencephalon? what does it consist of ?

A

sits on top of the brain stem
enclosed by cerebral hemispheres

consists of the :

  • thalamus
  • hypothalamus
  • epithalamus
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14
Q

what is hypothalamus and what are its 3 functions?

A

an important autonomic nervous system centre

  • regulate body temperature, water balance and metabolism
  • centre for drives and emotions eg thirst, appetite, sex, pain , pleasure
  • regulate the release of hormones by pituitary gland

if tumour is found in pituitary gland, cause hemianopia
visual field loss

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15
Q

what does the brain stem consist of and what are their functions?

A 
1. midbrain 
convey ascending (sensory) and descending (motor) impulses. contains reflex centres involved in vision and hearing
  1. pons
    mostly made up of fibre tracts. contains important nuclei involved in the control of breathing
  2. medulla oblongata
    an important fibre tract area. contain centres that control heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, swallowing, vomiting etc
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16
Q

where is the cerebellum and what is its functions?

A

found under the occipital lobe of the cerebrum, posterior to the pons and medulla oblongata of the brain stem

  • has two hemispheres and a convoluted surface
  • made up of outer gray matter and inner white matter

function :

  • provide precise timing for skeletal muscle activity
  • control balance and equilibrium
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17
Q

how is the cns being protected? (4 ways)

A
  1. Hard bony structure: skull (brain), vertebral column (spinal cord)
  2. membranous structure: meninges
  3. watery cushion: cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
  4. blood-brain barrier :
    composed of the least permeable capillaries in the whole body
    - control the content of CSF and therefore the microenvironment of the brain
    - pressure within CSF = intra-cranial pressure ( ICP )
    - it will rase if any growth in the brain
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18
Q

what are the two main types of cell in nervous tissue?

A
  1. neurons ( nerve cell )
  2. supporting cells ( also known as neuroglia or glial cell ( nerve glue) ) -> help nerve cells with their functions
    - astrocytes
    - microglia
    - ependymal cells
    - oligodendrocytes
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19
Q

what are the 3 main parts of the neuron?

A
  1. cell body
  2. dendrites
  3. axons
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20
Q

what is the function of cell body?

A

contains nucleus and organelles for protein synthesis ( =control centre )
eg protein neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) released from knob at the end of nerve cell for a muscle cell ( skeletal muscle) to contract

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21
Q

what is the function of dendrites?

A

receive information from various pathways

  • conduct impulses toward the cell body
  • neurons may have 1-1000 of branching dendrites
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22
Q

what is the function of axons?

A

carry nerve impulses/signals ( in form of neurotransmitter) along its length to the synaptic knobs (the axonal transport). which branches in the terminal arborization ( arbor= tree )

  • the synoptic knobs (many of them) forms synapse (junction) with another cell, a gland cell, or the dendrite of another nerve cell
  • therefore one neuron can stimulate hundreds of other cells (eg. muscle cells) in a large unit
  • each neuron only has 1 axon, arising from the axon hillock/trigger zone
  • the axon is intermittently covered by a myelin sheath, white in color. (cell body and dendrite do not have )
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23
Q

what is myelin and its function?

A

myelin is lipid-rich and it insulates the axons like wire coating insulates the wires of electrical appliances

but, myelin has gaps, called nodes of Ranvier, which is very important in the conduction of nerve impulses

  • in CNS :
  • white matter, in brain and spinal cord, is the concentration of myelinated axons
  • gray matter, in brain and spinal cord, is the concentration of dendrites, cell bodies and unmyelinated axons.

in PNS :
peripheral nerves have myelinated axons

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24
Q

what are the 4 support cells found in the CNS?

A
  1. astrocytes
  2. microglia
  3. ependymal cells
  4. oligodendrocytes
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25
Q

describe astrocyte and its function

A
  • star-shaped cells
  • have numerous cytoplasmic projections with swollen ends which cling to neurons
  • anchor neurons to the blood capillaries

functions:

  1. help mediate nutrient supply
  2. protect neurons from harmful substance
  3. control the chemical environment in the brain
26
Q

describe microglia and its function

A
  • spiderlike phagocytes

function: disposal of debris, including dead brain cells and bacteria

27
Q

describe ependymal cells and its function

A
  • line the cavities of the brain and spinal cord

function:
- its cilia help to circulate cerebrospinal (CSF) fluid that fills the cavities

28
Q

describe oligodendrocytes and its function

A
  • wrap their flat extensions tightly around the nerve fibres

function:
- produce myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the central nervous system

29
Q

what are the 2 support cells of the PNS and their functions?

A
  1. satellite cells
    protect cell bodies of neurons
  2. Schwann cells
    form myelin sheath around axons in the peripheral nervous system
30
Q

what are the 3 types of neurons?

A
  1. multipolar neurons ( most common in body )
    - multiple dendrites
    - one axon
    - cell body
  2. bipolar neurons
    - one dendrite
    - one axon
    - cell body
  3. unipolar neurons
    - one dendrite
    - one axon with cell body push off to the side
    - many cell body will group to form the ganglia
31
Q

what are multipolar neurons?

A

location :

  1. brain
  2. spinal cord

type of message : motor ( for many multipolar neurons )

direction of message : efferent ( if they are motor neurons )

32
Q

what are bipolar neurons ?

A

location:
1. nasal cavity
2. retina
3. inner ear

type of message : sensory

direction of message : afferent

33
Q

what are unipolar neurons?

A

locations:
1. skin
2. organs
etc

type of message : sensory

direction of message : afferent

34
Q

how are nerve impulses generated and transmitted through a neuron?

A
  1. cell body
    - control centre
    - generate impulses by a stimulus
  2. dendrites
    - receive information from various pathway
  3. axons
    - carry nerve impulses/signals (in form of neurotransmitter) to synaptic knobs (terminals)
  4. the synapse
    - neurotransmitter molecules transmitted to receptors through synaptic cleft (the gap)
35
Q

what are the 5 basic elements of a reflex arc that is caused by a stimulus? / what is the reflex arc?

A

receptor -> sensory neuron -> ingration center/interneuron ( eg spinal cord ) -> motor neuron -> effector

36
Q

describe the function and give eg of sensory neuron

A
  • carries impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS
    ~cell body of sensory neurons are always found in a ganglion outside the CNS
  • the dendrite endings are usually associated with specialized sensory receptors that varies in complexity

~ eg

  • pain receptor (bare nerve endings)
  • cutaneous receptor (skin)
  • proprioceptors (muscle and tendon)
  • vision, hearing, taste, smell, equilibrium receptors
37
Q

describe the functions of motor neuron

A
  • carries impulses from the CNS to the viscera and/or muscles and glands
    ~ cell body of motor neurons are always located in the CNS
38
Q

describe function of interneurons

A
  • connects the sensory neurons and the motor neurons

- cell body of interneurons are always located in the CNS

39
Q

comparison of control between somatic and autonomic nervous system

A

somatic : voluntary ( can be controlled )

autonomic : involuntary ( cannot be controlled )

40
Q

comparison of neural pathway between pathway between somatic and autonomic nervous system

A

somatic : one motor neuron extends from the CNS to an effector ( one synapse )

autonomic : a pre-ganglionic neuron extends from the CNS to an autonomic ganglion and synapses with a post-ganglionic neuron that extends to an effector ( two synapses )

41
Q

comparison of neurotransmitters between somatic and autonomic nervous system

A

somatic : Acetylcholine ( ACh)

autonomic :
pre-ganglionic neurons : ACh
post-ganglionic : ACh or norepinephrine/noradrenaline and norepinephrine

42
Q

comparison of effector between somatic and autonomic nervous system

A

somatic: skeletal muscle
autonomic: smooth muscle ( digestive, blood vessels ) , cardiac muscle, glands

43
Q

comparison of action between somatic and autonomic nervous system :

A

somatic : excitatory ( muscle contracts )

autonomic : excitatory or inhibitor

44
Q

comparison of examples between somatic and autonomic nervous system

A

somatic : muscles movements on hands, legs neck, etc

autonomic : heart rate, peristalsis, pupil reaction , etc

45
Q

comparison of control centres between somatic and autonomic nervous system

A

somatic : frontal lobe

autonomic : hypothalamus (interbrain)

46
Q

what does Autonomic Nervous Systems ( ANS ) consist of and what is its function?

A
  • consist of many PNS
  • it functions mostly by involuntary reflexes
  • to maintain homeostasis (balanced/ normal environment ) in changing internal conditions
47
Q

what are the effectors of the ANS? where are the sensory and motor impulses carried in?

A
  • effectors are : cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, glands
  • sensory impulses - centers in hypothalamus, brain stem, spinal cord
  • motor impulses - to be carried to effectors via cranial or spinal nerves
48
Q

what is the sympathetic division and what is it responsible for?

A

prepare for physical action to meet emergencies
Fight or Flight (‘F or F’)

  • involuntary reflexes
    effectors are : cardiac muscle, smooth muscle,glands
49
Q

what is the parasympathetic division and what is is responsible for?

A

dominant under control, non-stressful/relax conditions

rest and relax (‘R & R’)

50
Q

what are the response in effectors during sympathetic stimulation ( fight or flight ) ?

A

eye - dilation of pupil ; changes lens shape for far vision

heart - increase heart rate

blood distribution - increase blood supply to skeletal muscle: decrease supply to digestive organs

lungs - dilate bronchioles

liver - decrease bile production : increase blood glucose

digestive tract - inhibits motility and secretion of glands

51
Q

what are the response in effectors during parasympathetic stimulation ( rest and relax )
[ basically the opp of sympathetic stimulation ]

A

eye - constrict pupil ; changes lens shape for near vision

heart - decrease heart rate

blood distribution - decrease supply to skeletal muscle ; increase supply to digestive organs

lungs - constrict bronchioles

liver - increase bile production ; decrease blood glucose

digestive tract - promotes motility and secretion of glands

52
Q

what are the 6 types of headaches

A
  1. migraines
  2. headaches caused by digestive problems
  3. stress headaches
  4. tension headaches
  5. sinus headaches
  6. anxiety headaches
53
Q

what is a primary headache? ( HA) give eg

A
  • stand-alone illnesses caused directly by the overactivity of, or problems with, structures in the head that are pain-sensitive.
  • this includes the blood vessels, muscles, and nerves of the head and neck. they may also result from changes in chemical activity in the brain.
  • egs migraines, tension headaches, cluster headaches
54
Q

what is a secondary headache? (HA) give eg

A

symptoms that happen when another condition stimulates the pain-sensitive nerves of the head. in other words, the headache symptoms can be attributed to another cause

  • eg. alcohol-induced hangover, brain tumor, blood clots, bleeding in or around the brain, concussion, dehydration, glaucoma, teeth-grinding at night, influenza, overuse of pain medication, panic attacks, stroke
55
Q

what causes multiple sclerosis? what are some of its signs/symptoms?

A
  • characterized by demyelination of the axons (help with the condition of nerve impulses, nerve became uninsulated, the direction of impulse is difficult to control )
  • unknown cause, may be hereditary
    ~ it is an autoimmune disease (body cannon distinguish self from non-self)

signs/symptoms : loss of sensation/ touch, motor control/movement, vision. in severe cases, can cause dementia.
- patient are usually wheelchair-bound

56
Q

what impact does multiple sclerosis have on the eyes?

A
  1. Nystagmus - involuntary rapid eye movement
    ~ pain, double vision
  2. optic neuritis - severe inflammation of the optic nerve
    ~ loss of vision
57
Q

what is a brain tumor and what are its symptoms?

A

any tumor, extra tissue, or fluid can cause pressure on the brain and result in the following symptoms :

  • increased intracranial pressure (ICP) - caused by extra tissue or fluid in the brain that can lead to headache
  • brain damage - life-threatening
  • headache (worse in the morning), nausea, vomiting, change in speech, vision & hearing, balancing/walking problem, mood/personality change, memory, muscle jerking/twitching, numbness/tingling in arms and legs
58
Q

what are the 2 types of brain tumor?

A

benign :
no cancer cells, removed & never grow back, but it may become malignant

malignant:
has cancer cells, rapid growth/ spread to other parts of brain/spinal cord (metastasis) but not to other parts of body, life-threatening

59
Q

what are the risk factors and diagnosis of brain tumors?

A 
risk factors : 
ionizing radiation (eg. high dose x-ray), family history 
diagnosis : 
medical imaging (eg. CT scan, MRI), tissue biopsy (to study the cell/tissue change)
60
Q

what are the impacts of pituitary and cerebellar tumor?

A

pituitary tumor:

  • press on the optic chiasma
  • cause hemianopia = visual field loss

cerebellar tumor :
- press on visual cortex/ optic radiation

cp3078 (6 decks)

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