Topic 8 - Gene Expression Control Flashcards
Mutation
Change in DNA base sequence affecting gene function.
mRNA codons
Triplet sequences of nucleotides in mRNA.
tRNA anticodon
Complementary sequence to mRNA codons.
Amino acid
Building block of proteins, defined by codons.
Primary structure
Sequence of amino acids in a protein.
Tertiary structure
3D folding of a protein affecting function.
Active site
Region on enzyme where substrate binds.
Substitution mutation
One base replaced by another in DNA.
Deletion mutation
Removal of a base causing frame shift.
Addition mutation
Insertion of bases causing potential frame shift.
Duplication mutation
Repetition of bases in DNA sequence.
Inversion mutation
Reversal of base order in a DNA segment.
Translocation mutation
Detachment and reattachment of bases to another chromosome.
Alleles
Different forms of a gene produced by mutations.
Mutagenic agents
Factors increasing mutation frequency, e.g., radiation.
Proto-oncogenes
Genes stimulating normal cell division.
Oncogene
Mutated proto-oncogene causing uncontrolled cell division.
Tumour suppressor genes
Genes inhibiting unnecessary cell division.
Benign tumour
Non-spreading tumour, easy to remove.
Malignant tumour
Spreading tumour, life-threatening due to metastasis.
Zygote
Fertilized egg, totipotent stem cell.
Totipotent stem cell
Cell capable of becoming any body cell.
Pluripotent stem cell
Cell producing many, but not all, body cells.
Cell specialization
Process where cells develop distinct functions.
Epithelial cells
Cells lining organs, unable to produce insulin.
Adult stem cells
Cells retaining division ability in adults.
Multipotent stem cells
Cells producing limited types of cells, e.g., blood.
Unipotent stem cells
Can only produce one cell type, e.g., heart muscle.
Induced pluripotent stem cells
Adult cells reprogrammed to pluripotent state.
Transcriptional factors
Proteins that regulate gene transcription in cells.
Oestrogen receptor
Binding site for oestrogen on transcriptional factors.
Acetylation
Addition of acetyl groups to histones, affecting gene expression.
Methylation
Addition of methyl groups to DNA, inhibiting transcription.
Proto-oncogenes
Genes that promote cell division; can lead to cancer.
Epigenetic changes
Heritable changes affecting gene expression without DNA sequence alteration.
Histones
Proteins that package and order DNA into structural units.
Transcription
Process of copying DNA into mRNA for protein synthesis.
RNA polymerase
Enzyme that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template.
Gene expression
Process by which information from a gene is used.
Cell specialization
Process where cells develop distinct functions and characteristics.
Environmental influence
External factors affecting gene expression and coiling of DNA.
Inhibitor release
Process where binding of oestrogen releases transcriptional inhibitors.
Increased cell division
Result of proto-oncogene activation by oestrogen.
Tightly packed DNA
Prevents transcriptional factors from binding to promoters.
Decreased acetylation
Increases histone positive charge, tightening DNA coiling.
Increased methylation
Inhibits transcription by blocking transcriptional factor binding.
Tumour suppressor genes
Genes that prevent tumor formation; can be silenced.
Epigenetic diseases
Diseases caused by abnormal gene expression regulation.
Histone acetylation
Modification that can activate or silence gene expression.
DNA methylation
Modification that typically represses gene expression.
Cancer development
Result of uncontrolled cell division due to gene regulation failure.
Early disease detection
Identifying risks based on histone and DNA modifications.
Lipid soluble molecules
Molecules like oestrogen that diffuse through cell membranes.
Transcription initiation
Begins when RNA polymerase binds to the promoter.
RNA interference (RNAi)
Regulation of translation using small interfering RNAs.
Double stranded RNA
Produced from excess mRNA by an enzyme.
Small interfering RNAs (siRNA)
Short RNA segments that silence gene expression.
Protein complex
Binds siRNA and cleaves complementary mRNA.
Gene expression blocking
Prevents gene function by inhibiting translation.
Genome sequencing projects
Determine base sequences of various organisms’ genomes.
Rapid sequencing technology
Allows genome sequencing in weeks, enhancing research.
Disease gene identification
Enables early diagnosis and targeted treatment.
Proteome
Complete set of proteins expressed by a genome.
Prokaryotic proteomes
Simpler due to absence of non-coding sequences.
Human proteomes
Complex due to regulatory genes and non-coding DNA.
Recombinant DNA technology
Combines DNA from different organisms to create GMOs.
Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)
Organism with DNA altered by recombinant techniques.
Restriction endonucleases
Enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences.
Sticky ends
Single-stranded overhangs that facilitate DNA joining.
Reverse transcriptase
Enzyme that synthesizes cDNA from mRNA.
Complementary DNA (cDNA)
DNA synthesized from mRNA, lacking introns.
DNA polymerase
Enzyme that synthesizes DNA strands from templates.
Gene Machine
Automated device for synthesizing DNA sequences.
In vivo gene cloning
Cloning using living cells, often microbes.
Plasmids
Small DNA circles in bacteria used as vectors.
Genetically engineered plasmid
Plasmid containing a foreign gene inserted.
Antibiotic resistance genes
Natural genes in plasmids providing bacterial resistance.
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
Technique to amplify DNA fragments exponentially.
Gene screening
Identifying genes linked to diseases for diagnosis.
Protein antigens
Proteins that trigger immune responses, important for vaccines.
Non-coding sequences
DNA segments that do not code for proteins.
Regulatory genes
Genes that control the expression of other genes.
Genetic markers
Genes used to identify bacteria with plasmids.
Agar
Gel-like medium for growing bacterial cultures.
Restriction endonuclease
Enzyme that cuts DNA at specific sequences.
Promoter region
Sequence allowing RNA polymerase to initiate transcription.
Terminator region
Sequence signaling RNA polymerase to stop transcription.
Plasmid DNA
Circular DNA used for gene cloning in bacteria.
Sticky ends
Single-stranded DNA overhangs facilitating gene insertion.
Ligase enzyme
Enzyme that joins DNA fragments by forming bonds.
Transformation
Process of introducing plasmid DNA into bacterial cells.
Replica plating
Technique to transfer bacterial colonies to new agar plates.
Ampicillin resistance gene
Gene enabling bacteria to survive in ampicillin presence.
Tetracycline resistance gene
Gene allowing bacteria to resist tetracycline antibiotic.
Industrial fermenters
Large-scale vessels for growing bacteria and producing proteins.
Optimum conditions
Ideal temperature and nutrient levels for bacterial growth.
Insulin production
Use of bacteria to produce insulin for diabetics.
Conjugation
Process where bacteria transfer genetic material between cells.
Green fluorescent protein (GFP)
Protein used as a marker for gene expression.
Recombinant plasmids
Plasmids containing foreign DNA inserted into them.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Technique to amplify specific DNA sequences in vitro.
DNA replication
Process of copying DNA to produce identical strands.
Forensic analysis
Use of DNA profiling in criminal investigations.
DNA nucleotides
Building blocks of DNA used in PCR reactions.
DNA polymerase
Enzyme that synthesizes new DNA strands during replication.
Primers
Short single-stranded DNA sequences initiating DNA synthesis.
Bacterial cell division
Process where bacteria reproduce by binary fission.
Antibiotic resistance
Ability of bacteria to survive exposure to antibiotics.
Gene cloning
Process of creating copies of a specific gene.
Bacterial colonies
Visible clusters of bacteria grown on agar plates.
Primers
Short sequences that initiate DNA replication.
DNA Polymerase
Enzyme that synthesizes new DNA strands.
Phosphodiester Bond
Link between nucleotides in DNA strands.
PCR
Technique to amplify DNA sequences exponentially.
Denaturation
Separation of DNA strands at 95ºC.
Annealing
Binding of primers to DNA templates at 40ºC.
Extension
Nucleotide addition at 72ºC during PCR.
Cycle Doubling
Strands double after each PCR cycle.
In Vivo Cloning
Gene cloning within living organisms.
In Vitro Cloning
Gene cloning outside living organisms.
Recombinant DNA Technology
Combining DNA from different organisms.
Alpha-1-Antitrypsin (AAT)
Protein used to treat lung diseases.
Fusion Gene
Gene combined with a promoter for expression.
Restriction Enzymes
Enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences.
Ligase
Enzyme that joins DNA fragments together.
Genetically Modified Animals
Animals with DNA from other species.
Surrogate Mother
Host for embryo development in cloning.
Tissue Culture
Growing plant cells in controlled conditions.
Herbicide Resistance
Ability of plants to survive herbicide application.
Gametes
Reproductive cells that carry genetic information.
Contamination Risk
Possibility of unwanted DNA in PCR.
Protein Extraction
Process of isolating proteins from organisms.
Unknown Side Effects
Potential risks from gene insertion.
Developmental Embryo Loss
Killing of embryos during genetic modification.
Eukaryotic Genes
Genes from organisms with complex cells.
Prokaryotic Cells
Simple cells without a nucleus.
Glycoprotein
Protein with carbohydrate groups attached.
Herbicide resistant genes
Genes that allow crops to survive herbicide application.
Weed species
Plants that compete with crops for resources.
Long term health effects
Unknown impacts of gene products on human health.
Native species
Plants indigenous to a specific area.
Genetic diseases
Disorders caused by inherited mutant genes.
Cystic fibrosis (CF)
Genetic disorder caused by CFTR gene mutation.
CFTR protein
Cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator, defective in CF.
Chloride ions
Negatively charged particles transported by CFTR protein.
Osmosis
Movement of water across a membrane from low to high solute concentration.
Dehydrated mucus
Thick mucus that cannot be cleared by cilia.
Gene therapy
Treatment aiming to correct defective genes.
Restriction enzymes
Proteins that cut DNA at specific sequences.
Vectors
Vehicles used to deliver genes into cells.
Liposomes
Spherical vesicles used to deliver genetic material.
Viral vectors
Viruses modified to deliver therapeutic genes.
Aerosol spray
Method to administer gene therapy via inhalation.
Inefficiency of gene therapy
Low proportion of cells receiving and expressing the gene.
Immune response
Body’s defense mechanism that may target viral vectors.
Tumor suppressor genes
Genes that prevent uncontrolled cell growth.
Fertilized eggs
Eggs that have been fertilized, potential gene carriers.
Medical diagnosis
Determining genetic mutations to identify diseases.
Sickle cell anaemia
Blood disorder caused by a single base mutation.
Haemoglobin
Protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen.
Homozygous
Having two identical alleles for a trait.
Heterozygous
Having two different alleles for a trait.
Codominant alleles
Alleles that express both traits in a heterozygote.
Sickle cell trait
Condition of heterozygous individuals with reduced oxygen capacity.
Capillaries
Small blood vessels where gas exchange occurs.
Altered tertiary structure
Change in protein shape affecting its function.
Sickle Cell Trait
Provides malaria resistance in certain populations.
Gene Isolation
Obtaining specific DNA fragments for study.
Agarose Gel Electrophoresis
Technique to separate DNA fragments by size.
Negative Charge of DNA
Phosphate groups give DNA a negative charge.
DNA Fragment Movement
Smaller fragments move faster in gel electrophoresis.
Staining Gel
Visualizes DNA fragment positions after electrophoresis.
DNA Probe
Single-stranded DNA that binds to target sequence.
Hybridization
Binding of DNA probe to complementary DNA.
Autoradiography
Technique to visualize radioactive DNA fragments.
Restriction Map
Pattern of DNA bands based on fragment sizes.
Genetic Screening
Process to identify mutated genes in individuals.
Carriers
Individuals with one mutated gene, unaffected by disease.
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
Technique to amplify DNA for analysis.
Single-Stranded DNA
Form of DNA after treatment for probe binding.
Genetic Counseling
Guidance for individuals with genetic disease risks.
Oncogenes
Genes that may lead to cancer development.
Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTRs)
Repetitive non-coding sequences unique to individuals.
Forensic Science
Application of DNA fingerprinting in criminal cases.
Medical Diagnosis
Using DNA patterns to identify genetic diseases.
Plant Breeding
Using genetic fingerprinting to avoid inbreeding.
DNA Extraction
Process of isolating DNA from biological samples.
DNA Amplification
Increasing the quantity of DNA for testing.
Restriction Enzyme Recognition Sites
Specific sequences where restriction enzymes cut DNA.
Alkali Treatment
Makes DNA single-stranded for probe binding.
X-ray Film Exposure
Reveals DNA fragment positions as dark bands.
Inbreeding
Mating of closely related individuals, increasing genetic risks.
Huntington’s Disease
Genetic disorder linked to repetitive DNA sequences.
Cancer Risk Factors
Factors that increase likelihood of developing cancer.
Herceptin
Drug used for treating breast cancer patients.
Dark Bands on Gel
Indicate positions of DNA fragments after electrophoresis.
Gene Fragment Identification
Using probes to locate specific DNA sequences.
DNA Fragment Size
Determines the speed of movement in gel.
