Topic 7: Ideology and Science

Question 1

Science as a belief system:

What has the impact of science been?

Answer 1

Science has been very beneficial to society with it being able to cure diseases and raising living standards. This has made people trust science to solve problems.

However, science has also created problems such as pollution and climate change but because it is so unique it helps us understand, predict and control things in ways other belief systems e.g. religion can’t.

Question 2

Key word:

What are open belief systems?

Answer 2

Ways of thinking that can be questioned and changed if new evidence comes up e.g. science as it changes when we learn new things.

Question 3

Science as a belief system:

How is science an open belief system? (use sociologist)

Answer 3

Popper argues that science is an open system where theories are constantly tested and can be disproven.

Scientific knowledge grows by building on past discoveries, but no theory is ever considered absolutely true, as it can always be challenged with new evidence.

Question 4

Key word:

What does CUDOS stand for?

Answer 4

Merton - Four rules for how science works:

Communism: Knowledge should be shared, not kept private.

Universalism: Science should be judged by facts, not who the scientist is.

Disinterestedness: Scientists should seek knowledge for its own sake, not personal gain.

Organised Scepticism: All ideas should be questioned and tested.

Question 5

Science as a belief system:

How did science grow so rapidly? (use sociologist)

Answer 5

Merton says science grew because of values from the Protestant Reformation.

Protestant Christians believed in hard work and saw studying nature as a way to understand God, which helped science.

Question 6

Key word:

What does closed belief system mean?

Answer 6

Where beliefs are fixed and cannot be questioned or changed, even if there is evidence to the contrary.

It ignores or rejects new information that challenges its beliefs e.g. religion.

Question 7

Science as a belief system:

How is science an open belief system and religion a closed belief system? (use sociologist)

Answer 7

Horton argues that science is an open belief system, where ideas can be tested and disproven.

In contrast, religion and other belief systems are closed, meaning their core beliefs can’t be overturned/ can’t be challenged.

Question 8

Witchcraft among the Azande:

How do belief systems produce social harmony? (use sociologist)

Answer 8

Evans-Pritchard argued that the Azande belief in witchcraft helps maintain social harmony, prevent grudges, and encourages considerate behavior.

Misfortunes, like snake bites, are seen as caused by witchcraft, and accusations are resolved through a chicken oracle.

This belief system acts as social control, as accusations harm both the accused and their family.

Question 9

Witchcraft among the Azande:

How is witchcraft among the Azande tribe a closed belief system?

Answer 9

Witchcraft among the Azande is a closed belief system because it cannot be disproven.

Even when evidence contradicts the belief, it is explained away to reinforce the system e.g. if the oracle test fails, it is attributed to the potion being ineffective, not to the idea that witchcraft is unreal.

This self-reinforcing logic prevents challenges and keeps the belief intact.

Question 10

Key word:

What does circularity mean?

Answer 10

Ideas within the system are explained using other ideas from the same system, creating a loop.

Question 11

Key word:

What does subsidiary mean?

Answer 11

Problems or failures are explained away with additional reasons, like blaming the incorrect use of a tool.

Question 12

Key word:

What does denial of legitimacy to rivals mean?

Answer 12

Belief systems reject alternative views by refusing to accept their basic assumptions, such as how creationism (God making the world) dismisses evolution.

Question 13

Closed belief systems:

How do belief systems protect themselves from contradictory evidence? (use sociologist)

Answer 13

Polanyi (1958) argues that all belief systems use three strategies to protect themselves from contradictory evidence:

Circularity: Self-explanation loop

Subsidiary Explanations: Excuse failures

Denial of Legitimacy to Rivals: Reject alternatives

Question 14

Key word:

What does the scientific paradigm mean?

Answer 14

A set of shared beliefs and methods that guide research in a field, shaping how scientists approach problems and interpret evidence.

Question 15

Science as a closed belief system:

How is science a closed belief system? (use sociologist)

Answer 15

Kuhn argues that science can be a closed system because it is based on shared assumptions, or paradigms, that guide research and what counts as valid evidence.

Scientists are trained to work within these paradigms, and those who challenge them are often rejected.

Only during scientific revolutions, when the paradigm can no longer explain new findings, do scientists become open to new ideas.

Question 16

The sociology of scientific knowledge:

How is scientific knowledge socially created? (use sociologists)

Answer 16

Knorr-Cetina and Woolgar argue that scientific knowledge is socially constructed, not objective truth.

Scientists create facts through shared theories, controlled experiments, and interpretations of evidence.

e.g. Pulsar signals were initially thought to be from aliens but later identified as signals from a new type of star (as they thought that it would be unacceptable to name it that).

Question 17

Marxism and Science:

How do Marxists view science?

Answer 17

Marxists view science as serving the interests of the M/C and capitalism.

They argue that scientific knowledge is shaped by economic needs and is used to reinforce power and control.

Marxists also argue that science can be used to justify social inequalities e.g. certain biological ideas have been used historically to justify helping the ruling classes maintain control over marginalised groups.

Question 18

Feminism and Science:

How do feminists view science?

Answer 18

Feminists argue that science is biased and shaped by male perspectives, reinforcing gender inequalities.

They highlight how scientific theories, particularly those about gender, have been used to justify women’s supposed inferiority and shape societal roles.

Question 19

Post-modernism and Science:

How do Post-modernists view science?

Answer 19

Postmodernists believe science falsely claim to have the ultimate truth.

They argue that science does not provide objective truth but is just another way of thinking used to control or dominate people.

Question 20

Key word:

What does ideology mean?

Answer 20

a set of beliefs or ideas

Question 21

Key word:

What does hegemony mean?

Answer 21

The dominance of a certain groups ideas/beliefs

Question 22

Key word:

What does false-class consciousness mean?

Answer 22

When workers or lower-class people don’t realize they’re being exploited by the ruling class.

Question 23

Ideology:

How do Marxists view ideology? (use sociologist)

Answer 23

Marxism argues that society is divided into two classes: the capitalist R/C, who control the means of production, and the W/C who are exploited for their labour.

The ruling class maintains power through ideology, promoting ideas like meritocracy, racism, and victim-blaming to justify inequality.

These ideas create a “false consciousness” among the W/C, preventing social change.

Question 24

Ideology:

How can the W/C challenge the ideas of the ruling class? (use sociologist)

Answer 24

Gramsci argued that the W/C can develop ideas to challenge this dominance, drawing from both ruling-class ideology and their own experiences of exploitation.

Billings’ study showed that religion can either support or challenge social inequality, as miners’ churches encouraged protest, while textile workers’ churches discouraged it.

Question 25

Ideology:

How can’t the W/C challenge the ideas of the ruling class? (use sociologist)

Answer 25

Abercrombie et al. (2015) argue that economic factors, like the fear of unemployment, are more responsible for preventing workers from rebelling.

Question 26

Ideology:

How do Marxists see nationalism as a form of false consciousness?

Answer 26

Marxists see nationalism as a form of false consciousness that divides the working class.

Instead of uniting workers globally, nationalism makes them believe they have more in common with the capitalists in their own country, which helps the ruling class use workers to fight wars for their benefit.

Question 27

Ideology:

How do functionalists see nationalism as civil religion?

Answer 27

Functionalists view nationalism as a kind of “civil religion” that unites people into a national community, similar to how religion brings people together.

In modern societies with different religions, nationalism helps create unity. Education plays a key role in this by teaching national symbols, history, and rituals that promote social solidarity.

Question 28

Ideology:

How is nationalism a modern idea? (use sociologist)

Answer 28

Gellner argues that nationalism is a modern concept created by industrialisation, which helps people in large, complex societies communicate and cooperate by promoting a shared culture and language.

Elites use nationalism to motivate people to endure the challenges of industrialisation and support state modernisation.

Question 29

Key word:

What does ideological thought mean?

Answer 29

Thought that supports the status quo, benefiting privileged groups (e.g. the capitalist class).

Question 30

Key word:

What does utopian thought mean?

Answer 30

Thought that promotes social change, reflecting the interests of the disadvantaged, like the working class.

Question 31

Ideology and utopia:

How do belief systems reflect the interests of a specific group? (use sociologist)

Answer 31

Mannheim argued that all belief systems reflect the interests of specific groups. He divided them into two types:

Ideological thought: Supports status quo
Utopian thought: Promotes change

Mannheim said that people who think and write (like teachers or leaders) often have ideas that help the group they belong to, like rich people or workers. Since each group has its own way of looking at things, they end up disagreeing and fighting about what’s right.

Question 32

Ideology and utopia:

What is the solution to the problem of people attaching themselves to groups that benefit themselves?

Answer 32

Mannheim believed that to solve this problem, intellectuals should not be tied to any one group.

Instead, they should work independently to create a new, balanced worldview that takes everyone’s interests into account.

However, since different ideologies are often completely opposite, it’s hard to see how they could be brought together.

Question 33

Feminism and ideology:

How do feminists view ideology?

Answer 33

Feminists argue that gender inequality is maintained by patriarchal ideologies, which justify women’s inferiority through science and religion.

e.g. In the 19th-century scientists claimed that educating women weakened them, and some religions view women as impure due to menstruation or childbirth.

However, Hinduism has powerful female figures, showing that not all religious beliefs subordinate women.