Topic 6: Organisations, Movements and Members

Question 1

Types of religious organisations:

What are churches? (use sociologist)

Answer 1

Troeltsch argues that churches are large, inclusive religious organisations that attract the M/C often linked to the state, with a hierarchical structure and professional clergy.

They claim a monopoly on truth (believing that there is only one truth and no interpretation), with little commitment and aim for societal stability (they keep the status quo)

Question 2

Key word:

What does inclusive mean?

Answer 2

Means welcoming and accepting everyone, ensuring no one is excluded based on differences.

Question 3

Key word:

What does exclusive mean?

Answer 3

Means limiting access to a specific groups. certain people/ groups are not allowed to participate.

Question 4

Key word:

What does monopoly on the truth mean?

Answer 4

Believing that only your group has the correct or real answers, and that other beliefs are wrong.

Question 5

Types of religious organisations:

What are sects? (use sociologist)

Answer 5

Troeltsch - Sects are smaller, exclusive groups that tend to attract the poor and oppressed, requiring high levels of commitment.

These groups are led by charismatic leaders, reject mainstream society, and believe they alone possess the true religious teachings, focusing on personal devotion and separation from the wider world.

Question 6

Types of religious organisations:

What is a denomination? (use sociologist)

Answer 6

Niebuhr (1929) argues that denominations are less exclusive than sects but not as widespread as churches.

They accept society’s values, have a few rules, and are open to other beliefs, without claiming to have the only truth.

Question 7

Types of religious organisations:

What is a cult? (use sociologist)

Answer 7

Niebuhr (1929) describes cults as loose, individualistic groups led by people claiming special knowledge.

They don’t have a clear belief system, are open to other groups, and don’t require strong commitment from followers, who often treat it like a service.

Many cults focus on improving life in this world e.g. environmental groups.

Question 8

Types of religious organisations:

What are the similarities between these organisations in the way that they see themselves? (use sociologist)

Answer 8

Wallis (1984) - All religious groups believe their interpretation of religion is valid and correct, and they see their beliefs as legitimate.

(Even if they believe there are multiple interpretations, they still believe that their belief are right)

Question 9

Types of religious organisations:

What are the similarities between these organisations in the way that they are seen by wider society? (use sociologist)

Answer 9

Wallis (1984) - All these groups are recognised as religious organisations in society, however churches and denominations are treated with more respect compared to sects and cults as they don’t challenge societies values (they keep the status quo)

Question 10

Types of religious organisations:

What are the differences between these organisations in the way that they see themselves? (use sociologist)

Answer 10

Wallis (1984) - Churches and sects believe they have the only correct interpretation of religious teachings and claim exclusive truth, often viewing other beliefs as wrong or incomplete.

Denominations and cults - more tolerant, accepting that there can be multiple valid interpretations of faith.

Denominations accept diversity, while cults focus more on individual beliefs and offer a flexible approach to truth.

Question 11

Types of religious organisations:

What are the differences between these organisations in the way that they are seen by wider society? (use sociologist)

Answer 11

Wallis (1984) - Churches and denominations are seen as respectable, legitimate, and well-integrated into society, often supported by the state.

Sects and cults are viewed as deviant with their beliefs often seen as strange or threatening to social norms.

Question 12

Types of religious organisations:

How does traditional ideas about religious organisations not match today’s reality? (use sociologist)

Answer 12

Bruce (1996) says that the idea of a church having all the religious power, like the Catholic Church did before the Protestant Reformation, no longer applies.

Today, there are many different religious groups, so churches are no longer the only option. They are now just one of many denominations (with different beliefs, there is no longer one monopoly)

Question 13

Types of religious organisations:

What are new religious movements (NRM)?

Answer 13

Recent religious groups offering alternative beliefs and practices.

They often focus on personal transformation or spiritual enlightenment and can be unconventional or non-traditional.

Question 14

Types of religious organisations:

What are World-rejecting NRMs?

Answer 14

Religious groups that separate from mainstream society, have strict beliefs, and demand total commitment.

They often live communally, with strict control over members, and follow radical moral codes.

These groups criticise the outside world and aim for significant social or spiritual change, such as opposing sex before marriage and homosexuality.

Question 15

Types of religious organisations:

What are World-accommodating NRMs?

Answer 15

These groups often break away from mainstream religions, like neo-Pentecostalists splitting from Catholicism.

They don’t fully accept or reject the world but focus on restoring the spiritual purity of religion e.g. neo-Pentecostalists believe other Christian churches have lost the Holy Spirit. Members usually live ordinary lives.

Question 16

Types of religious organisations:

What are World-affirming NRMs?

Answer 16

Groups that focus on helping followers improve their lives in areas like careers and relationships.

They accept the world as it is and offer special knowledge or techniques to unlock spiritual powers and solve problems.

These groups are non-exclusive, tolerant of other religions, and place few demands on members, who often live normal lives.

Question 17

Evaluation of types of religious organisations:

What are the criticisms of the types of religious organisations? e.g. ethnocentric (use sociologist)

Answer 17

Lynch and Barker, argue that Western scholars may be ethnocentric, judging non-Western or less mainstream religions based on Western values.

This can lead to unfair labelling of groups like Scientology as “cults” and misinterpretations. Sociologists suggest a more open-minded and culturally sensitive approach to studying religion.

Question 18

Evaluation of types of religious organisations:

What are the criticisms of the types of religious organisations?

Answer 18

Some religious organisations change over time, shifting in beliefs and structure e.g. the Catholic Church, once seen as having a monopoly is now more like a denomination.

Question 19

Key word:

What are sects?

Answer 19

Religious groups that break away from larger religions because of different beliefs.

They reject mainstream society, claim to have the “true” teachings, and ask members for strong commitment in return for salvation or spiritual renewal.

Question 20

Key word:

What are cults?

Answer 20

Religious groups that offer worldly benefits like personal growth or health, often appealing to people seeking solutions to personal or social issues.

Question 21

Types of religious organisations:

What is the difference between a sect and cult? (use sociologist)

Answer 21

Stark and Bainbridge argue that sects break away from churches over beliefs, offering salvation to people facing economic or moral struggles.

WHEREAS….

Cults are new religions that promise benefits like health or personal growth, and attract more prosperous people dealing with personal or health issues.

Question 22

Types of religious organisations:

What are audience cults? (use sociologist)

Answer 22

Stark and Bainbridge - audience cults are the least organised religious groups where members participate passively, often through media, with minimal interaction or commitment e.g. UFO cults.

Question 23

Types of religious organisations:

What are client cults? (use sociologist)

Answer 23

Stark and Bainbridge - client cults involve a consultant-client relationship, offering services like therapies or spiritual guidance.

They focus on self-fulfilment and healing, moving away from traditional beliefs such as miracles or contact with the dead.

Question 24

Types of religious organisations:

What are cultic movements? (use sociologist)

Answer 24

Stark and Bainbridge - cultic movements are highly organised and demand full commitment from members, who are not allowed to belong to other religious groups.

e.g. Scientology

Question 25

Evaluation of types of religious organisations:

Criticism of Starks and Bainbridge’s view of types of cults e.g. ignore diversity (use sociologist)

Answer 25

Bruce (1996) points out that members of a group may have different levels of commitment and belief, meaning a group can’t always be easily classified into one category arguing that Stark and Bainbridge ignore internal diversity within these religious groups.

Question 26

Evaluation of types of religious organisations:

Criticism of Starks and Bainbridge’s view of types of cults. (use sociologist)

Answer 26

Glock and Stark (1965) argue that politics and culture are important in understanding religious movements, as a group may seem deviant in one society but acceptable in another.

However Stark and Bainbridge’s focus on conflict with society is criticised ignoring broader social factors e.g. politics and culture.

Question 27

Key word:

What does marginality/marginalisation mean?

Answer 27

When individuals or groups are excluded or pushed to the edges of society, facing discrimination and limited opportunities.

Question 28

Key word:

What does relative deprivation mean?

Answer 28

The feeling of being deprived or disadvantaged in comparison to others, leading to frustration or resentment.

Question 29

Key word:

What does social change mean?

Answer 29

The way society’s structure, values, or rules change over time.

Question 30

Key word:

What does a theodicy of deprivilege mean?

Answer 30

A religious explanation that justifies suffering or hardship seeing it as a test of faith with the promise of future rewards e.g. a better life in heaven.

Question 31

Explaining the growth of religious movements:

How does marginality show why NRMs may appeal to people? (use sociologist)

Answer 31

Troeltsch argues that sects tend to attract people who are socially marginalised or disadvantaged.

Weber (1922) argue that sects offer a theodicy of disprivilege religious explanation that justifies suffering or hardship seeing it as a test of faith with the promise of future rewards e.g. a better life in heaven.

Sects have traditionally attracted poor and marginalised groups, like the Nation of Islam among African Americans as these groups have often been discriminated by society so join a group who are able to meet their needs and are for social change.

Question 32

Explaining the growth of religious movements:

How does relative deprivation show why NRMs may appeal to people? (use sociologist)

Answer 32

Stark and Bainbridge argue that the relatively deprived are more likely to form sects that focus on teachings about the difficulties of wealth and rewards for the meek. These sects challenge the suffering of those marginalised.

Whereas the privileged are drawn to world-accepting churches, which align with their status and goals for earthly rewards and continue to upheld their status (keep the status quo).

Question 33

Explaining the growth of religious movements:

How does social change show why NRMs may appeal to people? (use sociologist)

Answer 33

Wilson (1970) argues that rapid change disrupts society’s norms, causing uncertainty (anomie). In response, those affected may turn to sects for support and stability.

e.g. Methodism grew quickly among the industrial working class in the 18th century, offering community and salvation in response to the exploitation that people were receiving during the Industrial Revolution.

Bruce (1995, 2011) - the rise of sects/cults today is a response to secularisation, with people moving away from traditional, demanding religions and turning to cults that require less commitment.

Question 34

Explaining the growth of religious movements:

What are the reasons for World-rejecting NRMs growing? (use sociologist)

Answer 34

World-rejecting NRMs became popular among young people in the 1960s, influenced by social and cultural shifts e.g. going against societal norms and the rise of radical politics and counter-culture movements.

Bruce (1950), the failure of the counter-culture to bring about change led disillusioned youth to turn to religion for meaning.

Question 35

Explaining the growth of religious movements:

What are the reasons for World-affirming NRMs growing? (use sociologist)

Answer 35

World-affirming NRMs emerged as a response to modernity.
As work lost its sense of purpose in modern society, world-affirming NRMs offered people success and a sense of identity.

These groups help individuals achieve personal goals. Wallis argue that some people, after leaving world-rejecting groups, joined world-affirming movements in the 1970s to find a more normal lifestyle.

Question 36

Explaining the growth of religious movements:

Why are sects short lived? e.g. second generation (use sociologist)

Answer 36

Niebuhr (1929) argues that sects form from disagreements with churches but these can short-lived fading/becoming denominations.

One reason is that the second generation, born into the sect, usually lacks the same commitment and passion as their parents, who joined to reject the world and live radically.

Question 37

Key word:

What is the Protestant work ethic?

Answer 37

The belief that hard work, discipline are signs of a person’s faith and a way to achieve success.

Question 38

Explaining the growth of religious movements:

Why are sects short lived? e.g. second generation (use sociologist)

Answer 38

Niebuhr (1929) argues that sects form from disagreements with churches but these can short-lived fading/becoming denominations.

Sects that focus on hard work and saving, like the Methodists in the 19th century, become more successful e.g. “Protestant ethic” effect.

As members become wealthy, they may start to compromise with society, causing the sect to either lose its strict beliefs or see members leave.

Question 39

Explaining the growth of religious movements:

Why are sects short lived? e.g. second generation (use sociologist)

Answer 39

Niebuhr (1929) argues that sects form from disagreements with churches but these can short-lived fading/becoming denominations.

When a charismatic leader dies, the sect often either falls apart or becomes more organised and less intense (beliefs are watered down, turning into a denomination.

Question 40

Explaining the growth of religious movements:

How do religious organisations move through a cycle? (use sociologist)

Answer 40

Stark and Bainbridge (1986) describe a cycle of religious groups:

With it at first members who feel deprived break away from main organisation and form a sect. Because of this, the sect has strong leadership and intense beliefs.

However, later the sect loses strong leadership and intense beliefs, because of this lack of strong leadership and intense beliefs thy become like a denomination and this sect is accepted by society and the cycle continues.

Question 41

Key word:

What does conventionist sect mean?

Answer 41

Evangelicals - aim to convert many people and usually grow into larger, more formal denominations

Question 42

Key word:

What does adventist sect mean?

Answer 42

e.g. Jehovah’s Witnesses - believe in the Second Coming of Christ and separate themselves from the corrupt world, preventing them from becoming a denomination.

Question 43

Explaining the growth of religious movements:

How do not all sects not follow the same pattern? (use sociologist)

Answer 43

Wilson (1966; 2008) says not all sects follow the same pattern with some sects becoming bigger whereas with others they shrink.

Some sects, like the Amish and Mormons, stay strong by keeping members apart from society.

Wilson believes globalisation will make it harder for sects to stay separate but easier to recruit people from poorer countries (those who are poor are more likely to join sects as they feel insecure - religion gives them hope).

Question 44

Key word:

What does self-spirituality mean?

Answer 44

People look inward for spiritual meaning, rather than relying on traditional religions.

Question 45

Key word:

What does de-traditionalisation mean?

Answer 45

The New Age rejects traditional religious authorities (like priests or sacred texts), valuing personal experience and self-discovery.

Question 46

Explaining the growth of religious movements:

What are the two key features of the New Age movement? (use sociologist)

Answer 46

Self-spirituality and detraditionalisation highlight the New Age’s rejection of traditional, external religious authority in favour of a more personalised, individualistic approach to spirituality.

The movement encourages people to look within for meaning and truth, whilst rejecting institutions that dictate spiritual practices.

This makes the New Age highly diverse, with followers often blending ideas from different belief systems and traditions to create their own unique spiritual practices.

Question 47

Key word:

What does metanarratives mean?

Answer 47

Explanation that claims to explain everything or provide the ultimate truth about the world.

Question 48

Explaining the growth of religious movements:

How does post-modernity and the New Age link? (use sociologist)

Answer 48

Drane (1999) argues that the New Age movement reflects a shift toward postmodern society, where people no longer trust grand “meta-narratives” or claims to absolute truth.

Science has instead led to problems e.g. war and environmental destruction because of this people are turning to New Age beliefs, which suggest that individuals can find truth by looking within themselves.

Question 49

Explaining the growth of religious movements:

How does modernity and the New Age link? (use sociologist)

Answer 49

Bruce (1995; 2011) argues that the New Age is a product of modern society, with its emphasis on individualism, which aligns with New Age beliefs.

Bruce views the New Age’s is a reflection of consumerism in capitalist society.

Heelas (1996) connects the New Age to modernity by suggesting it offers people a source of identity in a society where individuals often have to manage multiple, distinct roles e.g. work, family and friends.

Question 50

Religiosity and social groups:

How does gender and religiosity link? (use sociologist)

Answer 50

Davie (2013) highlights gender differences in religious beliefs and practices, showing that:

More women (55%) than men (44%) identify with a religion (British Social Attitudes Survey, 2012).

A higher percentage of women (38%) say religion is important to them, compared to men (26%).

ALL OF THIS SHOWS HOW WOMEN ARE MORE RELIGIOUS THAN MEN!!!

Question 51

Religiosity and social groups:

Why are women more religious than men e.g. socialisation (use sociologist)

Answer 51

Socialisation: Women are taught to be more passive, obedient, and caring, qualities that align with religious values, making them more attracted to religion.

Davie (2013) suggests that women’s roles in birth, caring for the sick, and death make them more focused on life’s big questions, which draws them to religion - gives women peace and comfort.

Question 52

Religiosity and social groups:

Why are women more religious than men e.g. paid work (use sociologist)

Answer 52

Bruce (1996; 2011) argues that women’s religiosity is linked to their role in the private sphere of family life, where religion has become more focused.

As more women entered the workforce, their religiosity declined, but they remain more religious than men due to their roles in caring and the feminisation of churches.

The introduction of women priests and bishops in the Church of England has further reinforced this trend.

Question 53

Religiosity and social groups:

Why are women more religious than men e.g. women and the New Age (individualism)

Answer 53

Women are drawn to New Age movements because they align with nurturing roles and personal growth.

These beliefs offer women a sense of self-worth and help them navigate role conflicts between their public work and private family roles.

New Age ideas focus on personal autonomy and inner self-development, allowing women to find identity outside traditional gender expectations.

Question 54

Religiosity and social groups:

Why are women more religious than men e.g. women and the New Age (class differences)

Answer 54

M/C women are more drawn to New Age movements that emphasise self-development, while W/C women tend to embrace more passive beliefs e.g. fatalistic practices e.g. superstition.

These differences reflect broader class distinctions in attitudes toward personal control and fate.

Question 55

Religiosity and social groups:

Why do women join sects? (use sociologist)

Answer 55

Bruce (1996) explains that women are more likely to join sects because they offer solutions to three problems that women face more often:

Health issues: Women, facing more health problems, turn to sects for healing.

Moral concerns: Women’s moral conservatism often draws them to sects that share their views.

Poverty: Women, being more economically disadvantaged, are more likely to join sects

Question 56

Key word:

What is the Pentecostal gender paradox?

Answer 56

The idea that even though Pentecostalism is a patriarchal religion it still attracts women.

Question 57

Religiosity and social groups:

How does Pentecostalism attract women?

Answer 57

Brusco - despite its patriarchal structure (with men being the head of the household), Pentecostalism appeals to women in Latin America by promoting self-discipline and encouraging men to be more responsible.

This leads to better financial and social conditions for women and children, even though men retain authority. Church teachings also support more equal relationships within marriage.

Question 58

Ethnicity and religiosity:

How does ethnicity and religion link? (use sociologist)

Answer 58

Ethnic minorities in the UK e.g. Indian and Black African/Caribbean are more religious that white people.

e.g. black people attend church more often than whites, and view religion as important with Blacks making up 40% of the Pentecostal church.

However, religious observance has declined, particularly among the second generation.

Question 59

Key word:

What is cultural defence?

Answer 59

The use of religion by an ethnic or cultural group to protect and preserve their identity, values, and traditions when facing external threats or discrimination.

Question 60

Ethnicity and religiosity:

How can cultural defence show how ethnicity links to religion? (use sociologist)

Answer 60

Bruce (2002) argues that religion helps ethnic minorities maintain cultural identity and provides support in a hostile environment.

Bird (1999) for minorities, religion fosters community solidarity, preserves culture, and helps cope with racism showing why they are more religious.

Many black African and Caribbean Christians turned to black-led Pentecostal churches after being excluded by white churches.

Question 61

Key word:

What does cultural transition mean?

Answer 61

The process of adapting to a new culture or changing cultural norms, often experienced by immigrants or the second generation as they adjust to a different society whilst trying to keep their original traditions.

Question 62

Ethnicity and religiosity:

How can cultural transition show how ethnicity links to religion? (use sociologist)

Answer 62

Religion helps minority groups adjust to a new culture by offering support and a sense of community.

Herberg (1955) explains that high religious participation among first-generation immigrants in the USA helps them settle into society.

Pryce (1979) found that Pentecostalism helped Black Africans adapt, promoting values like self-reliance and hope, while Rastafarianism rejected mainstream society, viewing it as racist.

Question 63

Age and religious participation:

How does age link to religious participation? (use sociologist)

Answer 63

In general, older people are more likely to attend religious services than younger people.

e.g. the number of 15-19 year olds attending church is expected to decrease by half between 2015 and 2025, and by 2025, they will make up only 2.5% of all churchgoers.

Half of all English churches have no attendees under 20.

Question 64

Age and religious participation:

What are the reasons for age differences when it comes to religious participation? e.g. the ageing effect

Answer 64

People become more religious as they get older.

Heelas (2005) argues that as people approach death, they become more concerned with spiritual matters, such as the afterlife and repentance, leading them to attend church more often.

Malinowski - Religion helps to minimise the impact of these changes e.g. funeral reinforce a feeling of solidarity (everyone is going through the same thing)

Question 65

Age and religious participation:

What are the reasons for age differences when it comes to religious participation? e.g. secularisation

Answer 65

Voas and Crockett argue that secularisation is the main reason for declining religiosity across generations.

They found that traditional religious socialisation methods, like Sunday schools, have largely disappeared since the 1960s.

Question 66

Age and religious participation:

What are the reasons for age differences when it comes to religious participation? e.g. socialisation

Answer 66

Voas and Crockett argue even when both parents share the same faith, there’s only a 50% chance their child will remain religious as an adult.

As a result, churchgoers are increasingly older, with projections showing that by 2025, over 40% of churchgoers will be aged 65 or older.

Without more young people joining, Christianity in the UK is expected to become a small, aging minority.