Topic 1: Theories of Religion

Question 1

Types of Religion:

What does it mean by the diversity of religion?

Answer 1

There is no universal definition of religion due to the diversity of belief systems.

Question 2

Types of Religion:

What are theistic religions?

Answer 2

the belief that there is a god

Question 3

Types of Religion:

What does monotheistic mean

Answer 3

the belief there is only one God.

Question 4

Types of Religion:

What does polytheistic mean

Answer 4

the belief in multiple gods.

Question 5

How do sociologists define religion?

What is religion?

Answer 5

Set of beliefs and ideas about the world

Question 6

How do sociologists define religion?

What are the three main approaches to defining religion?

Answer 6

Substantive, Functional and Social constructionist

Question 7

How do sociologists define religion?

What is the substantive definition of religion? (use sociologist)

Answer 7

Weber (1905) argued that religion requires a belief in a supernatural god that cannot be explained by science

This makes it different from an ideology which is a set of beliefs and ideas that are used to justify the position of some in society

Question 8

How do sociologists define religion?

Evaluation of the substantive definition of religion?

Answer 8

WEAKNESS: This definition is too narrow as it excludes belief systems such as Buddhism - this reflects the western bias of religion - ethnocentric

Question 9

How do sociologists define religion?

What is the functional definition of religion (use sociologist)

Answer 9

Durkheim and Parsons - Religion is defined by the social and psychological functions it performs for individuals or society.

e.g. encouraging social cohesion (shared values) - without necessarily including supernatural beliefs

Question 10

How do sociologists define religion?

Evaluation of the functional definition of religion

Answer 10

WEAKNESS: Any belief system or committed followers can be classed as a religion (as they are share the same values) e.g. nationalism e.g. Nazism

POSITIVE: It doesnt include a western bias

Question 11

How do sociologists define religion?

What is the social constructionist definition of religion? (use sociologist)

Answer 11

There’s no single definition of religion as religion means different things to different people.

e.g. Aldridge - some governments have denied scientology legal status as a religion - shows that definitions of religion are influenced by those who have the power to define it e.g. government.

Question 12

How do sociologists define religion:

Evaluation of the social constructionist definition of religion?

Answer 12

STRENGTH: Inclusive - many definitions - reflects what people think religion is

WEAKNESS: Makes religion hard to define - many different interpretations of it - lacks plausibility

Question 13

How do sociologists define religion:

Why is it difficult to measure religious belief?

Answer 13

Census data is unreliable - people fill it on behalf of others in the family.

Opinion polls- people lie (social desirability)

Many people ‘believe but don’t belong’ this means that they may be theist (believe in a god / Christian but don’t attend church

Question 14

How do sociologists define religion:

How does religion differ from science?

Answer 14

Religion is based on faith - What you can feel

Science is based on fact - What you can see

Question 15

Functionalist view of religion:

What is the functionalist view of religion (use sociologist)

Answer 15

Durkheim - Religion is a conservative force that promotes social solidarity (sense of unity)

Question 16

Functionalist view of religion:

How does religion promote social solidarity (generally) (use sociologist)

Answer 16

Durkheim - religion promotes social solidarity and value consensus through religious rituals

When people are united by shared norms and values they use sacred objects to unite people e.g. the cross

e.g. The Arunta tribe - come together to worship a sacred totem representing community. This reinforced solidarity and sense of belonging (one belief).

Question 17

Functionalist view of religion:

How does religion create collective consciousness (use sociologist)

Answer 17

Durkheim - sacred symbols represent shared norms/values that help society function - without these society couldn’t function well .

Religious rituals reinforce the collective consciousness and maintain community.

Religion also strengthens us to face life’s problems - mentality of everything will be better in the after life

Question 18

Functionalist view of religion:

How does religion help us to reason/understand the world (use sociologist)

Answer 18

Durkheim - religion is the start of human thought, reason and science.

Question 19

Functionalist view of religion:

How does religion offer psychological functions (use sociologist)

Answer 19

Malinowski - religion promotes social solidarity by performing psychological functions for people.

Helps them cope with emotional stress. Mentality of ‘everything happens for a reason’

e.g. when outcome is uncontrollable/uncertain and at times of life crises

Question 20

Functionalist view of religion:

How does religion offer psychological functions when the outcome is is uncontrollable/ uncertain (use sociologist)

Answer 20

Malinowski studied Trobriand Islanders - contrasts fishing in the lagoon and fishing in the ocean to show religion can provide a psychological function

The lagoon fishing - safe- no rituals performed

Ocean fishing dangerous - rituals performed to ensure safety - gives people a sense of control and confidence to do dangerous thing - reinforces group solidarity.

Sees ritual serving as ‘god of the gaps’ - fills the gaps in human beings control over the world e.g. being unable to control the outcome of a fishing trip.

Question 21

Functionalist view of religion:

How does religion offer psychological functions in a time of life crises (use sociologist)

Answer 21

Malinowski - birth, marriage and especially death are major changes for people.

Religion helps to minimise the impact of these changes e.g. funeral reinforce a feeling of solidarity (everyone is going through the same thing)

Idea of immortality - comfort to be bereaved by denying the fact of death.

Death is the main reason for the existence of religious belief

Question 22

Functionalist view of religion:

How does religion provide people with values and meaning to life

Answer 22

Parsons (1967) - Religion offers explanations for our existence.

Religion answers questions about why the good suffer and why some die young.

Religion says that suffering is a test of faith and the reward people will receive will be in heaven. This helps people to cope with awful events and maintain stability - if not people would cause chaos

Question 23

Functionalist view of religion:

How does religion exist as a form of civil religion to unite people and promote social solidarity (generally) (use sociologist)

Answer 23

Bellah - ‘civil religions’ main religions in 20th century - traditional religions declined.

Civil religions (nationalism) e.g. ‘Americanism’ is the civil religion of America. This is a belief in the American way of life is the best way to live.

Seen through the pledge of allegiance each day in schools and flying the American flag outside homes and buildings

This unites all Americans regardless of religion or ethnic background (under shared belief that America is better than everyone else)

Question 24

Functionalist view of religion:

How does religion create and legitimates society’s central values (ideas about right and wrong) and therefore promote social solidarity (use sociologist)

Answer 24

Parsons (1967) - Religion creates and legitimates society’s central values by making norms and values sacred and holy.

e.g. In the USA, the Protestant Christianity has made sacred the American values of individualism, meritocracy and self-discipline.

This promotes value consensus and therefore social stability - everyone follows the same rules

Question 25

Evaluation of the functionalist view of religion:

How can Durkheim’s ideas not be applied to contemporary society

Answer 25

Increasing diversity has broken up the collective conscience so there is no longer a single shared values system for religion to reinforce.

Symbols have lost their meaning therefore religion no longer matters. It is outdated as society is now much more secular (going away from religion)

Question 26

Evaluation of the functionalist view of religion:

How do functionalists views ignore the negative aspects of religion

Answer 26

Religion causes serious conflicts between people and societities. Over time it has caused many wars and conflicts

e.g between catholic and protestants within Christianity and the Sunni and Shia within Islam (both Catholics and Sunni are more traditional and feel like the other two are being disrespectful to God as their practices are more casual.

Marxists argue that religion fails to often stand up for the poor - they see religion as an oppressive force which creates a false collective conscience stopping the w/c from seeing inequality in society and therefore stop rebellion.

Feminists argue that religion functions to oppress women and the poor. There are many examples of patriarchal religious beliefs and practices oppress the lives of women e.g. FGM

Question 27

Evaluation of the functionalist view of religion:

How does religion help people to cope with emotional stress

Answer 27

Religion does help people cope with emotional stress e.g. funerals helps to comfort and unite the family and friends of the person who has died. It helps them to function and therefore minimises disruption to society (less likely to rebel)

Many people still prefer a religious funeral even if they don’t consider themselves particularly religious

However, there are now an increasing number of non - religious funeral ceremonies which reflects the secularisation of society and shows that people don’t need religion to cope at times of bereavement

Question 28

Functionalist view of religion:

How can religion (through Civil Religion) unify society

Answer 28

In America, in Russia and in Nazi Germany

People have pride in their country and show this through e.g. in America saying and worshipping the American flag, singing the National anthem and singing the pledge of allegiance.

All of society agree on one thing (unity) (less conflict)

Question 29

Functionalist view of religion:

How does religion provide people with values and meaning to life that promotes social solidarity (generally) (use sociologist)

Answer 29

Parsons (1967) -there are two essential functions that religion performs in modern society.

e.g. religion creates and legitimates society’s central values (ideas about right and wrong)

e.g. religion offers the main explanations concerning the meaning for our existence

Question 30

Evaluation of the functionalist view of religion:

Functionalists fail to see how religion causes major social change

Answer 30

Religion has been behind many movements for change

e.g. the civil rights movement in America (1950s-1960s) - if Martin Luther King and black priests were able to challenge white priests on things such as ‘love thy neighbour’. White priests said this but didn’t do it through their actions e.g. allowing segregation

e.g. Hinduism behind India’s economic development now (Hindu beliefs in karma and the cycle of birth/rebirth can influence attitudes towards wealth, work ethic and philanthropy (be good in this life get better in the next one)

Question 31

Marxist view on religion:

What is the Marxist view of Religion (use sociologist)

Answer 31

Marxists dislike religion as it is a conservative force (help things stay the same) that helps to support capitalism

Question 32

Traditional Marxist view on religion:

How do Traditional Marxists see religion as an ideology

Answer 32

Traditional Marxists view religion an an ideology - a set of ideas that distort/blur people’s understanding of reality.

Religion is an ideological weapon used by the ruling class to justify the suffering of the poor because they say that their suffering is inevitable and god-given.

Religion misleads the poor into believing they will be rewarded in the after life and because of this they should not complain about their suffering on earth.

Question 33

Marxist view on religion:

What was Marx’s views on religion (use sociologist)

Answer 33

Marx saw religion as a conservative force (institutions that prevent significant change)

Marx viewed religion as a form of ideology that controlled the masses (everyone)

Religion served the needs of capitalism as it maintained the oppressive structure of society with the bourgeoisie controlling the proletariat

Question 34

Traditional Marxist view on religion:

How do Traditional Marxist see religion as creating a false
consciousness (use sociologist)

Answer 34

Religious ideas create a false consciousness - a distorted view of reality that prevents the poor from acting to change their situation.

Engels - false consciousness would keep the w/c from recognising and rejecting their oppression

Lenin - describes religion as spiritual gin that confuses the w/c and keeps them in their place.

The ruling class use religion to keep the mass (people) from overthrowing capitalism by creating a ‘mystical fog’ that obscures reality

Religion legitimates the power and privilege of the ruling class by making the w/c believe their position is approved by God (The Divine Right of Kings) - trying to challenge this would be a sin

Question 35

Traditional Marxist view on religion:

How do Traditional Marxists see religion as causing alienation? (use sociologist)

Answer 35

Marx - the proletariat experience alienation - this means that they have no ownership or control over what they’ve created in the workplace and get paid little for it - they have no control.

Religion acts as a drug to dull the pain of exploitation. Promises of an afterlife distract attention from the true source of suffering which is capitalism

Question 36

Neo-Marxist view on religion:

How does religion reinforce ruling class ideas and values (use sociologist)

Answer 36

Marx - the capitalist system reinforces the dominance of ruling class ideas and values.

The ruling class use religious ideas to support their domination over society e.g. the divine right of kings

Question 37

Neo-Marxist view on religion:

How are religious ideas used to maintain control (use sociologist)

Answer 37

Gramsci - the ruling class use religion to maintain control. By having ruling class ideas put into important institutions e.g. it means that people will follow (as they fear God’s punishment if they don’t.

Hegemony - the dominance of a particular set of ideas

Question 38

Neo-Marxist view on religion:

How can religion counter the control of ruling class ideas (us sociologist)

Answer 38

Gramsci - counter hegemony can happen when the w/c challenge the ruling class. He argued that religion can help workers see through ruling class hegemony by offering a vision of a better, fairer world.

Billings study - showed how counter hegemony works in 2 w/c communities in the USA in the 1920s and 1930s. The mining workers went to churches that encouraged them to stick up for their working rights but the textile workers were encouraged not to protest by their churches. Billings concluded that religion was an important factor in this class struggle.

His study showed that the same religion can either defend the suffering or challenge it. (miners gained working rights, textile workers didn’t)

Gramsci - religion can have a dual character. It can either be bad for people or it can have a positive impact and change society for the better

Question 39

Evaluation on the Marxist view on religion:

How does religion not always legitimate those in power (use sociologist)

Answer 39

Religion doesn’t always legitimate (support/defend) those in power. It can sometimes be the thing that leads to change for the better.

e.g. Marxist Gramsci idea about counter hegemony, when the w/c challenge the ruling class dominant ideas.

There are many examples of religion helping to create positive social change

e.g. American civil rights movement - gave African-Americans same rights as White-Americans - challenged the idea that African-Americans should be subordinate to White-Americans

Question 40

Evaluation on the view on religion:

How does Marxists view of religion ignore the positive functions of religion (use sociologist)

Answer 40

Functionalists suggest that Marx ignores the positive functions of religion e.g. it allows people to psychologically adjust to misfortune e.g. religion shines as a means of support at a time of bereavement (Malinowski)

Also, religion often creates consensus and stability (Parsons)

Question 41

Evaluation on the Marxist view on religion:

How has religion had a negative impact on society

Answer 41

There is lots of evidence to support Marxist views about the negative impact on society of religion e.g. the role of the catholic church in creating poverty in South America through its teachings and beliefs on contraception

The Catholic Church believes that contraception interferes with the natural order of human sexuality and procreation which is seen as a gift from God - This has lead to a high birth rate in South America and therefore poverty - too many children cant afford to feed all of them

Question 42

Evaluation on the Marxist view on religion:

Religion continues to soar even without capitalism (use sociologist)

Answer 42

Marx argued that if we got rid of a capitalist society, there would no longer be any need for religion because there would be no alienation.(Marxists believe that religion only exists to act as a comfort for when the proletariat experience alienation).

However, China and Cuba, are communist, therefore meaning that they shouldn’t be religious according to Marxists but religion still continues there.

Suggests that there may be other reasons why religion continues e.g. maybe religion does provide psychological functions

Question 43

Evaluation on the Marxist view on religion:

Religious ideas are used to oppress the w/c

Answer 43

Marxist ideas about the use of religious ideas to oppress the working class can be supported throughout history e.g. monarchs (kings & queens) used the idea of the ‘divine right of kings’ to justify their wealth and power, arguing it was God’s will that they were in charge.

Question 44

Feminist views on Religion:

What are feminists view on religion

Answer 44

Feminists dislike religion because it is a conservative force that helps to support patriarchy

Question 45

Feminist views on Religion:

How does religion help to promote patriarchy e.g. through religious scripture/teachings

Answer 45

In many religious teachings women are given the role of nurturing, caring and giving birth. they reinforce the gender stereotypes, they are not only deviating from gender norms and family expectations but deviating from God’s will too.

The rules of religious organisations include a lot of rules that restrict the freedom of women. Rules on abortion, contraception all put restrictions on life choices for women but not men.

Women are hidden from society e.g. wearing veils, is seen as entrenching patriarchy

Question 46

Feminist views on Religion:

How does religion help to promote patriarchy e.g. through religious ceremonies and practices

Answer 46

Men and women worship separately (Orthodox Judaism and Islam.

Menstruation and pregnancy are treated as impure or ungodly e.g. in Islam women who are menstruating are not allowed to touch the Koran.

Holm (1994) - suggests that these various restrictions on the participation of women contribute to the devaluation of women in many contemporary religions

FGM (Female Genital mutilation) is practised among different religions and cultures, though it is not a religious requirement in any religion, feminists suggest that this practice is due to patriarchy. How men have power over something that doesn’t belong to them

Question 47

Feminist views on Religion:

How does religion help to promote patriarchy e.g. through the structure and power relations of religious organisations (use sociologist)

Answer 47

In the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church from the Pope to the priests it is all men and in most branches of Islam don’t recognise female Imams (priests)

In Judaism, there have been few female rabbis since the 1970s but it is still condemned by Orthodox Jews.

Armstrong- argues that the exclusion of women from priesthood demonstrates women’s marginalisation in religious and social life.

Woodhead - suggests that the exclusion of women both from positions of authority and from some religious practices come from a resistance to women’s freedom and choice.

Question 48

Evaluation on the feminist views on Religion:

How is religion not always patriarchal? (use sociologists)

Answer 48

Patriarchal societies have changed religions in order to ensure they reflected and reinforced patriarchal values

e.g. Armstrong (1993) - it was the development of monotheistic religions with their all powerful male Gods which left religion with a patriarchal and sexist core.

She points out that various goddesses and priestesses were replaced with male prophets.

Sadaawi - She argues that powerful men reinterpreted religious beliefs and ideas in order to benefit themselves and this led to the exploitation of women.

Question 49

Evaluation on the feminist views on Religion:

How is religion not sexist or patriarchal (use sociologist)

Answer 49

Woodhead - religion is not necessarily sexist or patriarchal and talks of a ‘religious feminism’ e.g. she argues that the veil, in Islamic societies, has been misinterpreted by some western feminists.

Many Muslim women choose to wear a veil and see it is a positive and liberating choice.

In restrictive patriarchal Middle-Eastern societies, women have used face veils to allow them to enter society, obtain employment and in other ways empower themselves as it is seen to be more expectable for women to be allowed in the workplace if they are covered fully.

Question 50

Evaluation on the feminist views on Religion:

How is religion sexist or patriarchal (use sociologist)

Answer 50

In western countries, some women have chosen to wear veils in order to escape the male gaze. However, El Sadaawi has described the veil as “a tool to oppress women.”

Hitchens accuses Woodhead of excusing the oppression of women by men in Islam by suggesting that Muslim women wear veils to empower themselves rather than suggesting that the Qur’an says that.

Question 51

Evaluation on the feminist views on Religion:

How is religion becoming more female orientated

Answer 51

Liberal Protestant organisations are committed to gender equality e.g. The Church of England has had female priests since 1992 and female bishops since 2015. Over 20% of its priests are female

Question 52

Evaluation on the feminist views on Religion:

How is religion not becoming female-orientated (use sociologist)

Answer 52

De Beauvoir argue that is because women are the intended audience of the ideological messages being promoted e.g. women should cook clean, have babies and tolerate inequality and oppression in exchange for rewards in the after life

In the Roman Catholic Church from the Pope down to the priests are men.

And in Islam menstruation is found to be ungodly e.g. women who are menstruating are allowed to touch the Qur’an

Question 53

Evaluation on the feminist views on Religion:

How would Marxist-Feminists argue that religion is patriarchal (use sociologist)

Answer 53

Marxists suggest that religion serves to support capitalism and patriarchy is a consequence of capitalism. The alienation that the men experience from work is then brought back oppresses women.

e.g. marriage represents the ‘world historical defeat of the female sex’ marriage was a sign that a women was a possession of her husband’s (Engels) . Anything that belonged to her automatically belonged to him

Question 54

Evaluation on the feminist views on Religion:

How would functionalists criticise feminists view that religion is patriarchal

Answer 54

Functionalists would suggest that feminism overlooks the way in which religion can offer support to women e.g. psychological functions and helps women deal with the issues of life and death which they are often closer to then men e.g. due to childbirth and care of the elderly