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Sociology - Families and Households > Topic 7 - Demography > Flashcards

Topic 7 - Demography Flashcards

1
Q

Factors that affect the size of the population

A
  1. Births
  2. Deaths
  3. Immigration
  4. Emigration
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2
Q

1801 Population

A
  • 10.5 million
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3
Q

1901 Population

A
  • 37 million
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4
Q

2015 Population

A
  • 65 million
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5
Q

2031 Population

A
  • Estimated 71 million
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6
Q

Birth rate

A
  • The number of live births per one thousand of the population per year
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7
Q

Birth rate

A
  • 1900 = 28.7
  • 2014 = 12.2
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8
Q

Total fertility rate

A
  • Average number of children women will have during their fertile years
  • 1964 = 2.93 children per woman
  • 2020 = 1.58 children per woman
  • 2021 = 1.61 children per woman
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9
Q

What do the fertility and birth rates reflect

A
  • More women are remaining childless than in the past
  • Women are postponing having children
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10
Q

Reasons for the decline in birth rate

A
  1. Changing position of women
  2. Decline in infant mortality rate
  3. Children are now an economic liability
  4. Child centeredness
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11
Q

Changing position of women (BR)

A
  • Legal equality with men including the right to vote
  • Increase in educational opportunities = girls now do better than boys
  • More women in paid employment, Equal Pay Act 1970 and Sex Discrimination Act 1975
  • Changes in attitudes toward women’s role
  • Easier access to divorce
  • Access the abortion and reliable contraception = women get more control over their fertility
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12
Q

HARPER (2012) - Changing positions of women

A
  • Education of women has been the most significant factor which triggered a change in mindset for women = reject traditional female roles and pursue education/careers = delaying childbirth or opting to not having children at all
  • E.g., 2012 1 in 5 women aged 45 were childless
  • Low fertility lasts one generation it is carried through to the next = small family size becomes normal
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13
Q

Decline in infant mortality rate (BR)

A
  • The number of infants who dies before their first birthday, per thousand babies born alive, per year
  • HARPER fall in IMR = fall in birth rate
  • 1900 IMR = 150
  • 1950 IMR = 31
  • 2021 IMR = 4
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14
Q

Reasons for the decrease in IMR

A
  • Improved housing and better sanitation
  • Better nutrition
  • Better knowledge of hygience, child health, and welfare
  • A fall in the number of married women working may have improved health
  • Improved services for mothers and children
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15
Q

Medical reasons for the decrease in IMR

A
  • Mass immunisation against whooping cough, diphtheria, and measles
  • Antibiotics
  • Improved midwifery and obstetric techniques
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16
Q

A03 Infant Mortality Rates

A
  • Fall in IMR did not lead to a decline in the birth rate
  • BRASS and KABIR trend in small families did not start in rural areas where the IMR first began to fall, but in urban areas where the IMR remained higherfor longer
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17
Q

Children are now an economic liability (BR)

A
  • Late 19th century = children were economic assets because they were sent to work and earned an income
    They are now seen as a liability:
  • Laws banning child labour, compulsory schooling and raising the school age means children remain dependent for longer
  • Changing norms about what children have a right to expect from their parents in material terms means that the cost of bringing up a child has risen (£227,000 by the time the child reaches their 21st birthday)
  • Parents choose to have smaller families as they are less likely to afford bigger ones
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18
Q

Child centeredness (BR)

A
  • Society is now socially constructed
  • “quantity” to “quality” parents now have fewer children and have more attention from their parents and greater resources
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19
Q

Future trends in birth rates

A
  • Birth rates, fertility rates, and family sizes has decreased
  • Slight increase in the mid 2000’s (immigration = mothers from outside of the UK have a higher fertility rate)
  • Babies born to mothers outside of the UK accounted for 25% of all births in 2011
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20
Q

Changes in the number of babies born per year affecting society

A
  1. The family
  2. Dependency ratio
  3. Public services and policies
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21
Q

The family (impact of BR)

A
  • Smaller families = more women more likely to go our and creating dual-earner households
  • Better off couples may have larger families as they can financially support them better
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22
Q

The dependency ratio (impact of BR)

A
  • The relationship between the size of the working population and the size of the non-working part of the population
  • Earnings, savings, and taxes of the working population support the dependent population
  • Children make up a large part of the dependency population, so a fall in birth rate reduced the “burden of dependency” on the working population
  • In the long run, fewer births = fewer young adults and a smaller working population = “burden of dependency” decreases again
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23
Q

Public services and policies (impact of BR)

A
  • Lower birth rate has consequences for public services
  • E.g., fewer schools and maternity and child health services are needed
  • Affects the costs of maternity and paternity leave and the types of houses that need to be built
  • Political decisions = instead of reducing schools could have smaller class sizes
  • An ageing population = Women having fewer babies = average age of the population is rising = more old:young people
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24
Q

Death rate

A
  • The number of deaths per thousand of the population per year
  • 1900 = DR 19
  • 2011 = DR 8.7
  • 2020 = DR 10.3
  • TRANTER over 3/4 of the decline in the DR from 1850-1970 was to the fall in deaths from infectious diseases, e.g., TB
  • Replaced by “diseases of affluence” as the amin cause of death = diseases caused by wealth such as heart disease and cancer (affect middle aged people the most)
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25
Q

Reasons for decline in death rate

A
  1. Improved nutrition
  2. Medical improvements
  3. Smoking and diet
  4. Public health measures
  5. Other social changes
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26
Q

Improved nutrition (DR)

A
  • MCKEOWN argue that improved nurtition accountef for over half the reduction in death rates (particularly TB)
  • Better nutrition means there was increased resistance to infection and increased the survival rates of those who did get infected
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27
Q

A03 Improved nutrition (DR)

A
  • This not not explain why women, who recieved the smallest share of food, lived longer than males
  • Fails to explain why some deaths from infectious diseases rose at the time nutrition improved, e.g., measles
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28
Q

Medical improvements (DR)

A
  • Advances in medical techniques and procedures, such as:
  • Blood transfusions
  • Antibiotics
  • Improved maternity care
  • 1948 setting up NHS
  • By-pass surgery
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29
Q

Smoking and diet (DR)

A
  • HARPER argues decrease in DR in recent times has not been down to medical improvements but from not smoking
  • 21st century = obesity replaced smoking as new lifestyle epidemic, e.g., 2012 1/4 of UK adults were obese
  • May be moving into an “American” health culture where obesity levels are high but long lifespan is achieved through the use of costly medication
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30
Q

Public health measures (DR)

A
  • Improvements in housing
  • Purer drinking water
  • Laws to combat the adulteration of food
  • Pasteurisation of milk
  • Improved sewage methods
  • Clean air act reduced air pollution
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31
Q

Other social changes (DR)

A
  • Decline of dangerous manual occupations such as mining
  • Smaller families reduced the rate of transmission of infection
  • Greater public knowledge about the causes of illness
  • Higher incomes = healthier lifestyle
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32
Q

Life expectancy

A
  • Increasing
  • The average number of years a person can be expected to live
33
Q

Life expectancy stats

A
  • Males born in 1900 expected to live to 50 (F 57)
  • Males born in 2000 expected to live to 79 (F 83)
34
Q

HARPER

A
  • “radical longevity” = many people over 100
  • However there are gender, class, and regional differences
  • WALKER argues those living in poorest areas die 7 years before those is richest areas
35
Q

The ageing population

A
  • Average age:
  • 1971 = 31.4
  • 2021 = 40.7
  • 2037 = 42.8
  • HIRSCH pyramids are starting to be replaced by equal sized blocks, e.g., by 2041 there will be the same amount of 78 and 5 year olds
36
Q

What is the ageing population caused by

A
  1. Increased life expectancy
  2. Declining infant mortality
  3. Declining fertility
37
Q

Effects of ageing population

A
  1. Public services
  2. One person pensioner households
  3. The dependency ratio
38
Q

Public services TAP

A
  • Older people (75+) consume a larger proportion of health and social care than any other groups
  • However we cannot over-generalise since many people remain in good health
  • The strain my come in terms of housing and transport
39
Q

One person pensioner households TAP

A
  • Number of pensioners living alone has increased and one person pensioner households account for 12.5% of all households
  • Most female as live longer than men
  • Feminisation of later life = by 75, 2x women than men
  • Take up too much family households
40
Q

The dependency ratio TAP

A
  • Non-working young and old are an economically dependent group who need to be provided for by the working group through taxation whicb pays for healthcare and pensions
  • 2015 = 3.2 workers:1 pensioner
  • 2033 = 2.8 workers: 1 pensioner
41
Q

A03 The ageing population

A
  • Wrong to assume all older individuals are dependent economically
  • For example the age at which people can draw their pension is increasing
  • 2020 = 66
  • 2026 = 67
  • Offset by declining number of dependent children
42
Q

Ageism, modernity, and postmodernity

A
  • Growth of ageism = negative stereotyping and unequal treatment of people based on their age
  • Employment, healthcare, discourse e.g., often described as a problem in terms of pensions and healthcare
43
Q

Modern society and old age

A
  • PHILLIPSON (Marxist) ageism is the result of structure dependency = exclusion from paid work leaves then economically dependent on family and the state
  • As soon as they are no use to capitalism because they no longer are productive they are maintained at the lowest possible cost to society
44
Q

Postmodern society and old age

A
  • Fixed, orderly stages of the life course have broken down, the boundaries have blurred
  • Individuals have greater choice of lifestyle whatever their age
  • As a result the old become a new market with a vast range of services appearing, e.g., cosmetic surgery, anti-ageing products etc
  • Reject the idea that old age is a stigmatised life stage
45
Q

A03 Ageism, modernity, and postmodernity

A
  • While the orderly stages may have broken down, PILCHER argues inequalities sich as class and gender remain important, e.g., higher classes have better occupational posiitons and therefore pensions
  • Postmodernists underestimate the importance of these inequalities as they ignore the wider structure of society. AGE CONCERN 2004 found 29% of people reported suggering age discrimination
46
Q

Policy implication

A
  • HIRSCH argues social policies need to change in order to tackle these peoblems posed by an argein population, how do we finance a longer period of old age
    He suggests:
  • Pay more from our savings and taxes while we are working and work for longer
  • Housing: old people should be encouraged to “trade down” in order to release wealth to improve standards of living and free up housing for families
  • Old age is a social construct
  • Change both policies and our cultural attitudes toward old age
47
Q

Migration

A
  • The movement of people from place to place (can be internal or international)
48
Q

Immigration definition

A
  • Movement into a society
49
Q

Emigration definition

A
  • Movement out of a society
50
Q

Net migration

A
  • The difference between the number of immigrants or emigrants, net increase or decrease
  • UK in 20th century = fewer immigrants than emigrants
51
Q

Immigration 1900-WWII (1939 - 45)

A
  • Enter
  • Largest immigration group mainly Irish for economic reasons, followed by Eastern and Central European Jews often fleeing persecution, and people of British descent from Canada and the USA
52
Q

Immigration during 1950s

A
  • Black immigrants from the Caribbean began to arrive in the UK
53
Q

Immigration 1960-1970

A
  • South Asian immigrants from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, and by East African Asians from Kenya and Uganda
54
Q

Immigration 1962-1990

A
  • Series of immigration and nationality acts places server restrictions on non-white immigration
55
Q

Immigration 1980s

A
  • Non-whites accounted for over a quarter of all immigrants
  • Most settlers at that point were from white countries in the European Union
56
Q

Consequence of immigration

A
  • More ethnically diverse society, as of 2021 ethnic minority groups account for 18% of the popuation
  • Greater diversity of family types
57
Q

Emigration

A
  • Mid 16th century-1980s UK has always bee a net exporter of people (more left than settled) = USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa
58
Q

Push factors

A
  • Emigration
  • Economic recession and unemployment
59
Q

Pull factors

A
  • Emigration
  • Higher wages or better opportunities ahead
60
Q

Impacts of migration of UK population structure

A
  • Increase in imigration and emigration
  • UK population size is increasing
  • Net imigration increasing 2014 = 260,000 and 2020 = 606,000
  • 79% non EU citizens
  • 13% EU citizens
  • 8% were British citizens returning
  • Natural increase with more births than deaths
  • 29% of all births in 2021 to non-UK born mothers
  • Without net migration UK population would be shrinking
61
Q

Age structure I

A
  • Immigration lowers the average age of the population both dierectly and indirectly
62
Q

Age structure I (directly)

A
  • Immigrants are generally younger
  • 2011 average age of UK passport holders was 41 whilst non-UK was 31
63
Q

Age structure I (indirectly)

A
  • Being younger, immigrants are more fertile so produce more babies
64
Q

The dependency ratio I (3 effects)

A
  • Immigrants are more likely to be of working age and this helps lower the dependency ratio. Many older migrants retun to their country of origin to retire
  • However immigrants have more children which increases the ratio. But over time these children will join the labour force and help to lower the ratio once again
  • The longer a group settles in the host nation the closer the fertility rate comes to that of the national average which reduces the overall impact on the dependency ratio
65
Q

Globalisation and migration

A
  • Growth of communication system
  • Global media
  • Creation of global markets
  • The fall of communism in Eastern Europe
  • Expansion of the European Union
66
Q

Trends in global migration

A
  1. Acceleration
  2. Differentiation
  3. Feminisaton of migration
67
Q

Acceleration GM

A
  • Rate of migration has sped uo
  • UNITED NATIONS 2013 state between 2000 and 2020 international migration increased by 33% to reach 232 million or 3.6% of the worlds population
68
Q

Differentiation GM

A
  • Different types of migrants that have resulted from globalisation, e.g., permanent settlers, temporary workers, spouses, and forced migrants (e.g., refuges and asylum seekers)
  • Legal entitlement or entering without permssion
  • Prior 1990s immigrants came from a narrow range of former colonies = fairly stable and homogenous ethnic communities
  • Globalisation = VERTOVEC super-deiversity = migrants come from a wider range of countries and differ in terms of legal status
69
Q

3 types of migrants COHEN

A
  • Citizens = full citizenship rights, since 1970 it has been harder to get these rights
  • Denizens = privileged foreign nationals welcomes by the state, e.g., billionaire “oligarchs”
  • Helots = slaves, most exploited, found in poorly paid unskilled work and include illegally trafficked workers
70
Q

Feminisation of education

A
  • Most migrants were men in the past, now half of global migrants are female = globalisation of the gender division of labour where female migrants are fitted into patriarchal stereotypes about womens roles as carers/providers of sexual services
  • EHRENREICH and HOCHSCHILD observe that care, domestic, and sex work in western cultures are done by women from poor countries:
    1. Expansion of service occupations
    2. Western women have joined the albour force and so have less time to perform domestic tasks
    3. Western men are unwilling to perform domestic duties
    4. The failure of the state to provide adequate childcare
  • The gap has been filled by women from poorer countries. SHUTES states that 40% of adult care nurses in the UK are migrants, most being female
  • Global transfer of women’s emotional labour
  • Migrant women enter western countries as mail order brides (reflects gendered stereotypes)
71
Q

Migrant identities

A
  • Multiple sources influence our identity e.g., family and friends
  • Migrants may form “hybrid” identities made up of two or more sources. EADE found second generation Bangladeshi Muslims in Britain created hierarchal identities: they saw themselves as Muslim first, then Bengali, then British. Those with hybrid identities found that others challenge their identity
72
Q

Transnational identies

A
  • ERIKSEN argues globalisation has created more diverse migration patterns with back and forth movements rather than permanent settlement
  • Migrants less likely to see themselves as belonging completely to one culture or country, so develop transnational identities (modern technology makes this possible)
  • Globalised economy means migrants may have more ties to other migrants across the globe than any one from their country of origin or of settlement
  • Migrants in a globalised world are less likely to desire assimilation into the host culture
73
Q

The politicisation of migration

A
  • With increased gloabl flow of migrants = migration is an important political issue
  • States have polivies to try and control immigration, absorb migrants, and deal with increased cultural and ethnic diversity
74
Q

Assimilation

A
  • First state policy approach to immigration
  • It aimed to encourage immigrants to adopt the language, values, and customs of the host culture to make them like us
  • BUT, these do not factor in migrants with hybrid identities who may not be willing to abandon their culture or see themselves as belonging to one nation
75
Q

Multiculturalism

A
  • Accepts that migrants may wish to retain a separate cultural identity
  • BUT, in practice, this acceptance may be limited to more superficial aspects of cultural diversity and ERIKSEN distinguishes between:
  • Shallow diversity
  • Deep diversity
76
Q

Shallow diversity

A
  • Such as regarding chicken tikka masala as Britain’s national dish is acceptable to the state
77
Q

Deep diversity

A
  • Such as arranges marriages or veiling women as not acceptable to the state
78
Q

A03 politicisation of migration

A
  • CASTLES argues assimilationist policies are counter-productive because they mark out minority groups as culturally backward or “other”. This can lead to minorities responding by emphasisng their dfference (Islamic fundamentalism).
  • This increases the hosts suspicion and promotes further policies that target them = further marginalisation
  • A divided working class = Assimilationist ideas may also encourage workers to blame migrants for social problems, e.g., unemployment, resulting in racist scapegoating. CASTLES and KOSACK argue this benefits capitalism by creating a racially divided working class and prevents united action

Sociology - Families and Households (7 decks)

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