Topic 6: Environmental Changes Flashcards

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1
Q

define stimulus

A
  • a detectable change in the environment
  • which can be detected by receptors
  • Organisms increase their chance of survival by responding to stimmuli via different response mechanisms.
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2
Q

give examples of simple responses to stimuli

A
  • taxes
  • kineses
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3
Q

What are taxis?

give examples

A
  • a directional response to a stimulus
  • the whole organism moves directly away from or toward the stimulus
  • move towards: positive taxis
  • moves away: negative taxis

worms: show negative phototaxis to prevent dehydration and predators.
bacteria: show positive chemotaxis

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4
Q

what are kineses?

example

A
  • non directional response to a stimulus
  • when an organism** changes the speed of movement** and the rate it changes direction
  • the rate of movement is impacted by the intensity of the stimulus
  • ## If an organism moves from an area where there are benefical stimuli to an area with harmful sitmuli , its kinesis response will be to increase the rate it changes direction** to return to the favourable** conditions quickly.

woodlice respond to water and must be in damp areas to prevent water loss so in a dry area they would turn rapidly to increase the probabilit that it will end up back in the damp area

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5
Q

Investigating taxes and kineses

A
  • Choice chambers and mazes are common pieces of apparatus that are used
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6
Q

define tropism

A
  • term given to when plants respond, via growth, to stimuli.
  • it can be positive or negative. Responding to light, gravity and wate.
  • Phototropism - growth response to light
  • Gravitropism - growth response to gravity
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7
Q

Give one similarity and one difference between a taxis and a tropism.
(2)

A
  1. Similarity − directional response (to a stimulus) / movement towards / away from a stimulus;
    2.** Difference** − taxis (whole) organism moves and tropism a growth (response).
    - Taxis occurs in animals / motile organisms and tropism occurs in plants
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8
Q

What is the role of growth factors in plants?

  • e.g. indoleacetic acid (IAA)
A
  • Growth factors in plants control and regulate growth responses to environmental stimuli.
  • in roots high conc of IAA inhibits cell elongation
  • in shoots, high conc of IAA stimulates cell elongation
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9
Q

Describe Indoleacetic acid’s role as a growth factor.

A
  • IAA is synthesised at the tips of roots and shoots i.e. in the meristems and it affects the elongation of cells in a plant.
  • it binds to the protein receptors on the cell membranes
  • lowers the pH causing cell wall to loosen and and allows the cells to be more easily stretched when the turgor of cell increases.
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10
Q

Describe how IAA causes elongation of cells

A
  • bind to a receptor protein on the cell surface membrane
  • stimulates ATPase to pump hydrogen ions from the cytoplasm into the cell wall
  • acidifies the cell wall (lowers the pH of the cell wall)
  • This activates expansins, which loosen the bonds between cellulose microfibrils
  • At the same time, potassium ion channels are stimulated to open
  • This leads to an increase in K+ concentration in the cytoplasm, decreasing the water potential
  • This causes the cell to absorb water by osmosis (water enters the cell through aquaporins) which is then stored in the vacuole
  • This increases the internal pressure of the cell, causing the cell wall to stretch (made possible by expansin proteins)
  • The cell elongates
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11
Q

Describe phototropism in a plant

in shoots and in roots

A
  • cells in the tip of shoot to produce IAA.
  • IAA diffuses down shoot/root (evenly intially)
  • IAA moves to the shaded side of shoot/root
  • In shoots this stimulates cell elongation whereas in roots this inhibits cell elongation/
  • so shoots bend towards light whereas roots bend towards light

root atipical meristem and shoot

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12
Q

Explain gravitropism in flowering plants (4)

A
  • Cells in tip of shoot/ root produce IAA.
  • IAA diffuses down shoot/root evenly initally
  • IAA moves to lower side of shoot/root (so conc increases)
  • In shoots , this stimulates cell elongation whereas in roots this inhibits cell elongation.
  • So shoots bend away from gravity whereas roots bend towards gravity
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13
Q

Use your knowledge of indoleacetic acid (IAA) to explain the growth curvature shown in Figure 1. (3)

A
  1. Tip produces IAA;
  2. IAA diffuses (into shoot);
    Accept auxin for IAA.
    Accept IAA diffuses down.
  3. (More) elongation of cells on one side (than other);

Accept (more) elongation of cells on left side.
Reject any reference to shaded/dark side or away
from light

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14
Q

Using the procedure in Figure 2 and the calibration curve in Figure 3, describe how you could compare the IAA concentration in shoot tips from
two different plant species.
In your answer you should refer to all the variables that should be controlled to produce a valid comparison (5)

A
  1. Size of shoot/tip;
  2. Number of shoot tips;
  3. Size/type of agar (block);**
    Accept ‘amount of agar’.
  4. (Shoots) at same stage of growth/development;
    Accept (Shoots/plants) are same age.
  5. Time (period) tips kept on agar
    OR
    Time (period shoots) kept in dark;
  6. Temperature;
  7. (Repeat several times and) calculate a mean;
  8. Compare/read degree of curvature (on calibration curve) to determine (IAA) concentration
    OR
    Higher the degree of curvature the higher the IAA concentration;

5 max

Mark points 1 to 6 = max 3.
Ignore pH, species, carbon dioxide, humidity,
nutrients, water and light.

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15
Q

Explain the protective effecct of a simple reflex (3)

A
  • rapid as only 3 neurones and few synapses
  • Autonomic (doesn’t involve conscious regions of brain) so doesn’t have to be learnt.
  • protects from harmful stimuli e.g. escape prefators/prevents damage to body tissues
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16
Q

Suggest 2 advantages of simple reflexes (2)

A
  1. Rapid;
  2. Protect against damage to body tissues;
  3. Do not have to be learnt;
  4. Help escape from predators;
  5. Enable homeostatic control.

max 2 points

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17
Q

what are three main types of neurones and their roles

A
  1. Sensory neurones carry impulses from receptors to the Central Nervous System (CNS - the brain or spinal cord)
    2
    . Relay (intermediate) neurones
    are found entirely within the CNS and connect sensory and motor neurones
  2. Motor neurones carry impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands)
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18
Q

What is a reflex arc?

A
  • A reflex arc is a pathway along which impulses are transmitted from a receptor to an effector without involving ‘conscious’ regions of the brain
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19
Q

Describe a reflex response

example of a pin

A
  1. A pin (the stimulus) is detected by a pain receptor in the skin.
  2. The sensory neurone sends electrical impulses to the spinal cord (the coordinator)
  3. Electrical impulses are passed on to relay neurone in the spinal cord
  4. The relay neurone connects to the motor neurone and passes the impulses on
  5. The motor neurone carries the impulses to the muscle in the leg (the effector)
  6. The impulses cause the muscle to contract and pull the leg up and away from the sharp object (the response)
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20
Q

describe the structure of the pacinian corpuscle

draw it

A

include:
- lamellae
- stretch mediated NA+ ion channel (closed)
- Gel
- Sensory neurone axon
- myelin sheath
- sensory neuron ending.

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21
Q

What does the Pacinian Corpuscle do and where is it found?

A
  • Pacinian corpuscles are a type of receptor found deep in the skin
  • They are present in the skin of fingers, soles of the feet as well as in joints, tendons and ligaments.
  • They respond to changes in pressure
  • When these receptors are stimulated by pressure on the skin it leads to the establishment of a generator potential
22
Q

Describe how a generator potential is established in a Pacinian corpuscle (4)

A
  1. Mechanical stimulus e.g. pressure deforms lamellae and stretch mediated channels (Na+) channels
  2. So Na+ channels in membrane open and Na+ diffuse into sensory neurone. Greater pressure causes more NA+ channels to open and more Na+ to enter.
  3. This causes depolarisation, leading to a generator potential.
  4. If generator potential reaches threshold it triggers an action potential.
23
Q

what is the eye and the main receptor cells inside of it?

A
  • The eye **is a sense organ **containing receptors sensitive to light intensity and colour.
  • contains:
  • Rod cells which are sensitive to light intensity
  • Cone cells which are sensitive to different wavelengths of visible light (colour)
24
Q

what is the structure of the eye?

A

label it:
- cornea
- iris
- lens
- retina
- optic nerve
- pupil

25
Q

Name and describe the function of strcutures in the eye

A

cornea: transparent lens that refracts light as it enters the eye
iris: controls how much light enters the pupil
lens: transparent disc that can change shape to focus light onto the retina
retina: contains light receptor cells - rods which detect light intensity and cones that detect colour.
optic nerve: sensory neurone that carries impulses between the eye and the brain.
pupil: hole that allows light to enter the eye

26
Q

what is the role of optical pigments in the eye

A
  • Rod cells contain rhodopsin
  • Cone cells contain iodopsin
  • The breakdown of optical pigments results in a generator potential being produced
  • The pigments within the receptors are broken down by different conditions
  • Rhodopsin within rods breaks down in dim light
  • Iodopsin within cones breaks down in bright light only
27
Q

Explain the difference in sensitivity to light for rods and cones in the retina

A
  • Rod cells are more sensitive to light intensity and are primarily responsible for vision in low-light conditions.
  • cone cells are sensitive to different wavelengths of visible light and enable color vision.
  • Rods allow humans to distinguish between light and dark, while cones allow the perception of color in brighter light.
28
Q

define visual acuity

A
29
Q

Explain how the structure of rod and cone cells contributes to differences in visual acuity.

A
  • Rods give lower visual acuity. This is because several rods are connected to a single neurone. So several rods send a single set of impulses, to the brain.
  • Cone cells give a higher visual acuity, each cone is connected to a single neurone. Cones send seperate sets of impulses to brain, so can distinguish between 2 seperate sources of light.
30
Q

Why do rod cells enable better vision in dim light compared to cone cells?

A
  • Rod cells contain the pigment rhodopsin, which breaks down in dim light, making them highly sensitive to low light levels.
  • Cone cells contain iodopsin, which only breaks down in bright light, making them less effective in dim conditions.
31
Q

Explain the difference in sensitivity to colour for rods and cones in the retina.

A
  • rods allow monochromatic vision: 1 type of rod/1 pigment.
  • Cone cells contain three different types of iodopsin pigments that are sensitive to specific wavelengths of light—red, blue, and green. These pigments allow the brain to interpret colors.
32
Q

What is summation, and how does it enhance vision in low-light conditions?

A
  • a single stimulated rod is unlikely to produce a large enough generator potential to stimulate the bipolar cell for the conduction of nerve impulses.
  • Thus when a group of rods are stimulated at the same time, the combined generator potentials ( spatial summation) are sufficient to reach the threshold.
  • To generate an action potential.
33
Q

Suggest and explain how the interaction between the muscles labelled in the diagram above could cause the pupil to constrict (narrow). (2)

muscles labelled: radial , pupil, iris , circular muscle

A
  1. Circular muscle contracts;
  2. Radial muscle relaxes;
34
Q

The fovea of the eye of an eagle has a high density of cones. An eagle focuses the image
of its prey onto the fovea.
Explain how the fovea enables an eagle to see its prey in detail. (3)

A
  1. High (visual) acuity;
  2. (Each) cone is connected to a single neurone;
    Accept no retinal convergence.
    Accept ‘bipolar/nerve cell’ for neurone.
  3. (Cones send) separate (sets of) impulses to brain;
35
Q

The retina of an owl has a high density of rod cells.
Explain how this enables an owl to hunt its prey at night. (3)

Do not refer to rhodopsin in your answer

A
  1. High (visual) sensitivity;
    Accept retinal convergence
  2. Several rods connected to a single neurone;
    Accept ‘bipolar/nerve cell’ for neurone
  3. Enough (neuro)transmitter to reach/overcome threshold
    OR
    Spatial summation to reach/overcome threshold; more for ‘several’
36
Q

Explain what causes vision using the fovea.
(i) to be in colour;

(1)
(ii) to have high visual acuity

A

(i) (Three) different types of (cone) cells / types 6 and 7 sensitive to different wavelengths / different frequencies / different colours;
(ii) Impulses along separate neurone from each receptor cell / each receptor cell connects to separate neurone;

37
Q

define myogenic and its relation to the heart

A
  • it can contract and relax without recieiving electrical impulses from nerves.
38
Q

Explain the role of the sinoatrial node in a heartbeat.

A
  • The sinoatrial node (SAN) is a group of cells in the wall of the right atrium. The SAN initiates a wave of depolarisation that causes the atria to contract
39
Q

Explain the role of the non-conducting tissue Annulus fibrosus in a heartbeat.

A
  • prevents the excitation from spreading to the ventricles and so this ensures that atria and ventricles don’t contract at the same time.
40
Q

Explain the role of the atrioventricular node in a heartbeat

A
  • The Atrioventricular node then sends the wave of excitation to the ventricles after a short delay of (around 0.1 - 0.2 seconds), ensuring that the atria have time to empty their blood into the ventricles.
41
Q

Explain the role of the Purkyne fibres in a hearbeat

A
  • conduct the excitation down the septum of the heart and to the apex, before the excitation is carried upwards in the walls of the ventricles.
  • the blood contracts from its base and blood is pushed upwards and outwards.
42
Q

Describe the myogenic stimulation of the heart and transmission of a subsequent wave of electrical activity

A
  1. SAN acts as a pacemaker - senes regular waves of electrical activity across atria. Causing atria to contract simultaneously.
  2. Non-conducting tissue between atria/ventricles prevents imupulse passing directly to ventricles. Preventing immediate contraction of ventricles. This delay allows blood movement.
  3. Waves of electircala ctivity reach atrioventricular which delays impulse. Allowing atria to fully contract and empty before ventricles contract.
  4. AVN sends waves of electrical activity down bundle of His, conducting wave between ventricles to apex when it branches into Purkyne tissue.
  5. Causing ventricles to contract simultaneously from the base up.
43
Q

what is the medulla responsible for ?

A
  • the medulla is locted at the base of the brain near the top of the spinal cord.
  • it is the cardioregulatory centre in the brain regulates heart rate)
  • it is made up of two distinct parts ; the accelatory centre ( speeds up the heart), the inhibitory centre. slows it down).
  • These are connected to the SAN via nerves. They make up the autonomic nervous system.
44
Q

What are autonomic nervous system?

A
  • system that controls involuntary actions of glands and muscles.
  • 2 subdivisions: sympathetic + parasympathetic.
  • Sympathetic: responsible for fight or flight. Parasympathetic: rest and digest.
45
Q

Name the receptots involved in changing heart rate and state their location.

A
  • chemoreceptors and pressure receptors are located in the aorta and carotid arteries.
  • baroreceptors: detect changes in blood pressure ; carotid body.
  • chemoreceptors: detect changes in ph ( due to increase in CO2 concentration. : Carotid body and aortic body.
46
Q

How does the body respond to an increase in blood pressure?

A
  1. Baroreceptors detect rise in blood pressure.
  2. Send impulses to the cardioinhibitory centre in the medulla oblongata
  3. which send more frequent impulses to SAN down vagus nerve via the parasympathetic nervous system
  4. This stimulates the release of acetylcholine so cardiac muscle contracts frequently.
  5. So heart rate decreases /increases
47
Q

How does the body respond to a decrease in blood pressure?

A
  1. Baroreceptors detect a decrease in blood pressure.
  2. Then sends more impulses to cardioacceleratory centre in the medulla oblongata.
  3. More impulses to SAN via sympathetic nervous system
  4. Stimulates release of noradrenaline which increases heart rate and strength of contraction.
48
Q

Describe how the body respond to an increase in CO2 concentration?

A
  1. Chemoreceptors detect pH decrease
  2. It sends more impulses to cardioacceleratory centre of medulla oblongata.
  3. Which send more frequent impulses to SAN along sympathetic neurones.
  4. So more frequent imulses sent from SAN to and from AVN.
  5. So cardiac mucle contracts more frequently.
  6. So heart rate increases.
49
Q

How does the body respond to a decrease in CO2 concentration?

A
  1. Chemoreceptors detect rise in blood pH.
  2. Send impulses to medulla / cardiac control centre.
  3. Which send more frequent impulses to SAN along parasympathetic neurones.
  4. So less frequent impulses sent from SAN and to / from AVN.
  5. So cardiac muscle contracts less frequently.
  6. So heart rate decreases
50
Q
A