T8: gene expression Flashcards
define a gene mutation
- a change in the base sequence of DNA
- can arise during DNA replication (interphase)
define a mutagenic agent
- a factor that increases rate of mutation
- e.g. ultraviolet or alpha particles
Explain how a gene mutation can lead to th production of a non-functional protein or enzyme
- changes seqence of base triplets in DNA so changes sequence of codons on mRNA
- so changes amino acid seuqnce in the encoded polypeptide
- so changes position of hydrogen/ionic/disulphide bonds between amino acids.
- so changes tertiary structure (shape) of protein
- enzymes - active site changes shape so substrate can’t bind , enzyme substrate complexes cannot form.
Describe the 6 different types of gene mutation
substitution: Replacement of a base by a different base (in DNA); (1)
addition: 1 or more bases/ nucleotides are added to the DNA base sequene
deletion: nucleotides are lost from the DNA base sequence ( can lead to frame shift)
duplication: a sequence of DNA bases / nucleotides is repeated.
inversion: a sequence of bases detaches from the DNA sequence then rejoins at the same position in the reverse order
translocation: a sequence of DNA bases detaches and is inserted as a different location within the same or a different chromosome
Explain why not all gene mutations affect the order of amino acids
- some substitutions change only 1 triplet codon which could still code for the same amino acid. As the code is degenerate.
- some occur in introns which do not code for amino acids.
Explain why a change in amino acid sequence is not always harmful
- may not change tertiary structure of protein ( if position of ionic disulfide and H bonds don’t change.
- may positively change the properties of the protein , giving the organnism a selective advantage
Explain what is meant by a frame shift .
- occurs when gene mutations change the number of nucelotides + bases by a number not / by 3
- this shifts the way the genetic code is read , so all the DNA triplets / mRNA codons downstream from the mutation change.
(i) Suggest how a mutation can lead to the production of a protein that has one amino acid missing. (2)
(i) Loss of 3 bases / triplet = 2 marks;;
Suggest how the production of a protein with one amino acid missing may lead to a genetic disorder such as Ellis-van Creveld syndrome.
1. Change in tertiary structure / active site;
2. (So) faulty / non-functional protein / enzyme;
Accept: reference to examples of loss of function eg fewer E-S complexes formed
A mutation in the gene coding for enzyme B could lead to the production of a non-functional enzyme. Explain how. (3)
- Change in base sequence (of DNA / gene) leading to change in amino acid sequence / primary structure (of enzyme);
- Change in hydrogen / ionic / disulphide bonds leading to change in the tertiary structure / active site (of enzyme);
3. Substrate not complementary / cannot bind (to enzyme / active site) / no enzyme-substrate complexes form;
Explain how a new form of myosin with different properties could have been produced as a result of mutation. (4)
- addition / deletion / substitution of a base in DNA of the gene which codes for myosin;
- changes in base sequence in DNA
- change in amino acid sequence / primary structure;
causes a different tertiary structure; - which alters the binding properties of myosin;
what are stem cells?
8.2
undifferentiated cells capable of :
- dividing by mitosis to replace themselves indefinitely
- differentiating into other types of specialised cells.
Describe how stem cells become specialised during development
- how do they obtain a specific function/ differentiate
- A stimulus activates specific genes through transcription factors
- transcription of mrna from these genes occurs and are translated into proteins
- which modify the cell’s structure and function, resulting in specialisation.
(a) Give two characteristic features of stem cells.
- Will replace themselves / keep dividing / replicate;
- Undifferentiated / can differentiate / develop into other cells / totipotent / multipotent / pluripotent;
Describe totipotent cells
- occur for a limited time in early mammalian embryos.
- can divide and differentiate into any type of body cells ( including extra-embryonic cells) e.g. placenta.
Describe pluripotent cells
- found in mammalian embryos ( after first few cell division)
- can divide and differentiate into most cell types ( every cell type in the body but not placenta)
Describe multipotent cells
- found in mature mammals
- can divide + differentiate into a limited number of cell types
- e.g. in bone marrow which can differentiate into types of blood cells.
Describe unipotent cells , using an example
- found in mature mammals
- can divide and differentiate into just one cell type
- E.G. Unipotent cells in the heart can divide and differentiate into cardiomyocytes
what are meristem cells
- undifferentiated cells found in the tips of roots and shoots.
- able to rapdily divide and produce a new plant
Explain how stem cells can be used in the treatment of human disorders
- transplanted into patients to divide in unlimited numbers.
- then differentiate into required healthy cells ( to replace faulty/damaged cells)
- e.g. type 1 diabetes / bone marrow stem cell transplant ‘ blood cancers
Explain how induced pluripotent stem cells are produced
- use adult somatic cells from patient
- add specific transcription factors which allow for genes associated with pluripotency to be expressed
- transcription factors attach to promoter regions of DNA stimulating or inhibiting transription
- culture cells to allow them to divide by mitosis
Current research into the treatment of red-green colour blindness involves the use of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells)
Suggest how iPS cells could correct red-green colour blindness. (2)
- (iPS cells) divide;
2. (iPS cells) develop/differentiate into (green sensitive) cones;
Suggest how transcription factors can reprogramme cells to form iPS cells. (2)
1. Attach to gene / DNA / promoter region;
2. Stimulate / inhibit transcription / RNA polymerase;
Evaluate the use of stem cells in treating human disorders
argue for - 4
for:
- can divide and differentiate into required healthy cells, so could relieve human suffering by saving lives and improving quality of life.
- embryos are often left over IVF and so would otherwise be destroyed.
- IPS cells unlikely to be rejected by patient’s immune system as made with patient’s own cells
- IPS cells can be made without destruction of embryo and adult can permission