T2: Cells Flashcards
Define the term eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell.
eukaryotic: DNA is contained in a nucleus; membrane bound specialised organelles
prokaryotic: DNA is ‘ free ‘ in cytoplasm, no organelles e.g. bacteria & archaea
Describe the structure and function of the cell membrane.
structure: phospholipid bilayer with extrinsic and intrinsic proteins embedded function:
- isolates cytoplasm from extracellular environment
- selectively permeable to reguglate transport of substances
- involved in cell recognition
Explain the role of cholesterol, glycoproteins & glycolipids in the cell surface membrane
cholesterol: steroid molecule connects phospholipids & reduces fluidity
glycoproteins: cell signalling, cell recognition ( antigens) & binding cell together
glycolipids: cell signalling & cell recognition
Describe the structure of the nucleus
- surrounded by nuclear envelope , a semi-permeable double membrane with pores
- nuclear pores allow substances to enter/exit
- dense nucleolus made of RNA & proteins assembles ribosomes
- the nucleoplasm ( equivalent of cytoplasm that exists in the nucleus.)
Describe the function of the nucleus.
- contains DNA coiled around chromatin into chromosomes
- controls cellular processes
Describe the structure of a mitochondrion.
- surrounded by double membrane
- folded inner membrane forms cristae which is the site of electron transport chain
- fluid matrix: contains mitochondrial DNA, respiratory enzymes, lipids, proteins
Describe the structure of a chloroplast and how its structure relates to its function. (4)
draw it
- Starch grains / lipid droplets store products of
photosynthesis; - double membrane - provides large surface for light absorption.
- Thylakoids: flattened discs stack to form grana; contain photosystems with chlorophyll.
- Intergranal lamellae: tubes attach thylakoids in adjacent grana.
- Stroma: fluid-filled matrix.- vesicular plastid
- Permeable membrane allows diffusion of gases /carbon dioxide;
- Stacking / arrangement of grana/thylakoids maximises
light catchment
State the function of mitochondria and chloroplasts.
mitochondria : site of aerobic respiration to produce ATP
chloroplasts: site of photosynthesis to convert solar energy to chemical energy
Describe the structure and function of the Golgi apparatus
- series of flat membrane-bound sacs
function: - proteins transported from RER to golgi apparatus via vesicles and fuse with cis face
- modifies & packages proteins for export
- at transface, , small vesicles bud of and move towards the cell membrane, where they fuse, releasing their contents by
exocytosis.
describe the structure and function of a lysosome
- membrane bound
- contains hydrolytic enzymes
- acidic environment
- involved in cell death and digestion
describe the structure and function of a ribosome
- formed of rRNA+ protein
- site of protein synthesis via translation
large subunit: joins amino acids
small subunit: contains mRNA binding site
describe the structure and function of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
structure : netwrok of cisternae and flattened sacs .
rough ER: many ribosomes on surface attached for protein synthesis & transport
smooth ER: Involved in the production, processing and storage of lipids, carbohydrates and steroids
Describe the structure of the cell wall in plants and bacteria
- bacteria: made of the polysaccharide murein
- plants: made of cellulose
state three functions of the cell walls
- mechanical strength and support
- physical barrier against pathogens
- part of apoplast pathway (plants) to enable easy diffusion of water
Describe the structure and function of the cell vacuole in plants.
structure:
- surrounded by a single membrane: tonoplast
- contains cell sap : mineral ions, water, enzymes , soluble pigments
function:
- controls turgor pressure
- absorbs and hydrolyses potentially harmful substances to detoxify cytoplasm
Explain some common cell adaptations
- folded membrane or microvilli increase surface area e.g. for diffusion
- many mitochondria = large amounts of ATP for active transport
- walls one cell thick to reduce distance of diffusion pathway
State the role of plasmids in prokaryotes
- small ring of DNA that carries non-essential genes
State the role of flagella in prokaryotes
- rotating tail propels ( usually unicellular) organism
state the role of the capsule in prokaryotes
give 3
- a polysaccharide layer:
- prevents desiccation
- provides mechanical protection against phagocytosis & external chemicals
- attaches the cell to surfaces
Give three structural properties shared by eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
similar structures
- cell membrane
- cytoplasm
- ribosomes
Contrast eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
- PC are smaller and always unicellular, whereas eukaryotic cells are larger and often multicellular.
- PC lack membrane-bound organelles and a nucleus, while eukaryotic cells always have membrane-bound organelles and a distinct nucleus.
- PC have circular DNA that is not associated with proteins, whereas eukaryotic cells have linear chromosomes associated with histone proteins.
- PC have smaller ribosomes (70S), whereas eukaryotic cells have larger ribosomes (80S).
- Prokaryotic cells reproduce by binary fission, which is asexual, whereas eukaryotic cells reproduce by mitosis and meiosis.
- Prokaryotic cells have cell walls made of murein (peptidoglycan), while eukaryotic plant cells have cell walls made of cellulose and fungi have cell walls made of chitin.
Give4 reasons why are viruses referred to as ‘ particles’ instead of cells?
- acellular & non-living
- no cytoplasm
- can’t self-reproduce
- no metabolism
Describe the structure of a viral particle
- linear genetic material (DNA or RNA ) & viral enzymes e.g. reverse transcriptase
- genetic material surrounded by capsid ( protein coat made of capsomeres)
- contains attachment proteins and lipid envelope
Describe the structure of an enveloped virus.
- simple virus surrounded by matrix protein
- matrix protein surrounded by envelope derived from cell membrane of host cell
- attachment proteins on surface
state the role of the capsid on viral particles.
- protect nucleic acid from degradation by restriction endonucleases
state the role of attachment proteins on viral particles.
- enable viral particle to bind to complementary sites on host cell
Describe how optical microscopes work
- lenses focus rays of light and magnify the view of a thin slice of specimen
- different structures absorb different amount and wavelengths of light
- reflected light is transmitted to the observer via the objective lens and eyepiece
outline how a student could prepare a temporary mount of tissue for an optical microscope
- Obtain thin section of tissue e.g. using ultra tome or by maceration.
- Place plant tissue in a drop of water.
- Stain tissue on a slide to make structures visible.
- Add coverslip using mounted needle at 45° to avoid trapping air bubbles.
Suggest the advantages and limitations of using an optical microscope.
3/2
+ colour image
+ can show living structure
+ affordable
limit:
- 2D image
- lower resolution than electron microscopes = cannot see ultrastructure
Describe how a transmission electron microscope (TEM) works.
- Pass a high energy beam of electrons through a thin slice of specimen
- more dense structures appear darker since they absorb more electrons
- Focus image onto fluorescent screen or photographic plate using magnetic lenses
Suggest the advantages and limitations of using a TEM.
2/4
+ electrons have shorter wavelength than light = high resolution , so ultrastructure visible
+ high magnification ( x 500,000)
limitations:
- 2D image
- requires a vacuum so cannot show living structures
- extensive preparation may introduce artefacts
- no colour image
Describe how a scanning electron microscope (SEM) works.
- focus a beam of electrons onto a specimen’s surface using electromagnetic lenses
- reflected electrons hit a collecting device and are amplified to produce an image on a photographic plate
Suggest the advantages and limitations of using an SEM
2/3
+ 3D image
+ electron shave a shorter wavelength than light + high resolution
- requires a vacuum = cannot show living structures
- no colour image
- only shows outer surface
Define magnification and resolution.
Magnification: factor by which the image is larger than the actual specimen.
Resolution: smallest separation distance at which 2 separate structures can be distinguished from one another.
Explain how to use an eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer to measure the size of a structure.
- Place micrometer on stage to calibrate eyepiece graticule.
- Line up the scales.
- Count how many graticule divisions are in 100um on the micrometer.
- Use calibrated values to calculate actual length of structures.
State an equation to calculate the actual size of a structure from microscopy.
actual size = image size / magnification
- triangle : IAM
Outline what happens during cell fractionation and ultracentrifugation.
- Blend and homogenize tissue to break open cells & release organelles.
- Place cold, buffered, isotonic solution
- Filter homogenate to remove debris.
- Perform differential centrifugation:
a) Spin homogenate in centrifuge.
b) The most dense organelles in the mixture form a pellet.
c) Filter off the supernatant and spin again at a higher speed.
state the order of sedimentation of organelles during differential centrifugation.
“Never Make Lightly Rated Popcorn, Seriously Rude”
most dense —-> least dense
nucleus , mitochondria , lysosomes, RER , plasma membrane , SER, ribosomes
Explain why fractionated cells are kept in a cold, buffered, isotonic solution.
cold: slow action of hydrolase enzymes.
buffered: maintain constant pH.
isotonic: prevent osmotic lysis/ shrinking
of organelles.
state what the cell cycle is and outline its stages
- cycle of division with intermediate growth periods
1. interphase
2. mitosis or meiosis ( nuclear division)
3. cytokinesis ( cytoplasmic division)
Explain why the cell cycle does not occur in some cells.
- After differentiation, some types of cell in multicellular organisms
- no longer have the ability to divide.
What is the difference between the cell cycle and mitosis?
- cell cycle includes growth period between divisions ; mitosis is only 10% of the cycle & refers only to nuclear division
Describe the process of Interphase
three phases:
- G1: cell synthesises proteins for replication and cell size increases. The cell increases in mass and size
- S phase: DNA replication occurs
- G2 phase: preparation for mitosis + more growth
State the purpose of mitosis
produces 2 genetically identical daughter cells
- Growth of multicellular organisms
- tissue repair /cell replacement
- asexual reproduction
Give the stages of mitosis
- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase